sistema de comércio romano
Economia na Roma Antiga.
Roma antiga comandava uma vasta área de terra, com enormes recursos naturais e humanos. Como tal, a economia de Roma permaneceu focada na agricultura e no comércio. O livre comércio agrícola mudou a paisagem italiana e, no século I aC, vastos latifúndios de uva e oliva haviam suplantado os fazendeiros, que não conseguiam igualar o preço do grão importado. A anexação do Egito, Sicília e Tunísia no norte da África proporcionou um fornecimento contínuo de grãos. Por sua vez, o azeite e o vinho eram as principais exportações da Itália. A rotação de culturas de dois níveis foi praticada, mas a produtividade agrícola foi baixa, em torno de 1 tonelada por hectare.
As atividades industriais e de manufatura eram menores. As maiores atividades desse tipo foram a mineração e pedreiras de pedras, que forneceram materiais básicos de construção para os edifícios daquele período. Na manufatura, a produção era em escala relativamente pequena e geralmente consistia em oficinas e pequenas fábricas que empregavam, na maior parte das vezes, dezenas de trabalhadores. No entanto, algumas fábricas de tijolos empregavam centenas de trabalhadores.
A economia do início da República baseava-se em grande parte na pequena propriedade e no trabalho pago. No entanto, as guerras e conquistas estrangeiras tornaram os escravos cada vez mais baratos e abundantes, e, no final da República, a economia dependia em grande parte do trabalho escravo tanto para o trabalho qualificado quanto para o não qualificado. Estima-se que os escravos tenham constituído cerca de 20% da população do Império Romano neste momento e 40% na cidade de Roma. Somente no Império Romano, quando as conquistas cessaram e os preços dos escravos aumentaram, o trabalho contratado tornou-se mais econômico do que a propriedade de escravos.
Embora a permuta fosse usada na Roma antiga, e muitas vezes usada na coleta de impostos, Roma possuía um sistema de cunhagem muito desenvolvido, com moedas de latão, bronze e metais preciosos em circulação por todo o Império e fora da Índia. Antes do século III aC, o cobre era comercializado em peso, medido em grumos não marcados, em toda a região central da Itália. As moedas de cobre originais (as) tinham um valor nominal de uma libra romana de cobre, mas pesavam menos. Assim, a utilidade do dinheiro romano como uma unidade de troca consistentemente excedeu seu valor intrínseco como metal. Depois que Nero começou a rebaixar o denário de prata, seu valor legal era estimado em um terço a mais do que seu valor intrínseco.
Cavalos eram muito caros e outros animais de carga eram lentos demais. O comércio de massa nas estradas romanas conectava postos militares, não mercados, e raramente eram projetados para rodas. Como resultado, houve pouco transporte de mercadorias entre as regiões romanas até o surgimento do comércio marítimo romano no século II aC. Durante esse período, uma embarcação comercial demorou menos de um mês para completar uma viagem de Gades a Alexandria por Ostia, abrangendo toda a extensão do Mediterrâneo. O transporte marítimo foi cerca de 60 vezes mais barato do que em terra, pelo que o volume dessas viagens foi muito maior.
Alguns economistas como Peter Temin consideram o Império Romano uma economia de mercado, semelhante em seu grau de práticas capitalistas à Holanda do século XVII e à Inglaterra do século XVIII.
Comércio e comércio.
O comércio romano foi o motor que impulsionou a economia romana do final da República e do início do Império. Modas e tendências na historiografia e na cultura popular tendem a negligenciar a base econômica do império em favor da língua franca do latim e das façanhas das legiões romanas. A linguagem e as legiões eram apoiadas pelo comércio, sendo ao mesmo tempo parte do seu backbone. Os romanos eram empresários e a longevidade de seu império era devida ao comércio comercial.
Enquanto, em teoria, os membros do Senado Romano e suas famílias eram proibidos de participar do comércio, os membros da ordem eqüestre estavam envolvidos em negócios, apesar de seus valores de classe alta enfatizarem as atividades militares e de lazer. Plebeus e libertos tinham barracas de lojas ou homens nos mercados, enquanto grandes quantidades de escravos faziam a maior parte do trabalho duro. Os escravos também eram sujeitos a transações comerciais. Sua alta proporção na sociedade (comparada com a da Grécia Clássica) e a realidade dos fugitivos, das Guerras Servis Romanas e das revoltas menores, deram um sabor distinto ao comércio romano.
A intrincada, complexa e extensa contabilidade do comércio romano foi conduzida com tábuas de contagem e o ábaco romano. O ábaco, usando numerais romanos, era ideal para a contagem da moeda romana e a contagem das medidas romanas.
Os romanos conheciam dois tipos de empresários, os negociadores e os mercadores. Os negociadores eram em parte banqueiros porque emprestavam dinheiro com juros. Eles também compravam e vendiam grampos a granel ou faziam comércio em quantidades de mercadorias por atacado. Em alguns casos, os argentarii são considerados um subconjunto dos negociadores e, em outros, como um grupo à parte.
Os argentarii atuavam como agentes em leilões públicos ou privados, mantinham depósitos de dinheiro para indivíduos, cheques descontados (prescriptio) e serviam como cambistas. Eles mantiveram livros estritos, ou tabulae, que foram considerados como prova legal pelos tribunais. Os argentarii às vezes faziam o mesmo tipo de trabalho que os mensarii, que eram banqueiros públicos nomeados pelo estado. Os mercatores eram geralmente plebeus ou libertos. Eles estavam presentes em todos os mercados ao ar livre ou em lojas cobertas, barracas de pedestres ou vendendo mercadorias ao lado da estrada. Eles também estiveram presentes perto de acampamentos militares romanos durante campanhas, onde venderam comida e roupas para os soldados e pagaram em dinheiro por qualquer saque proveniente de atividades militares.
Há algumas informações sobre a economia da Palestina romana de fontes judaicas por volta do século 3 dC. Pedras itinerantes (rochel) levavam especiarias e perfumes para a população rural. Isso sugere que os benefícios econômicos do Império alcançaram, pelo menos, os níveis superiores do campesinato.
O Forum Cuppedinis na Roma antiga era um mercado que oferecia bens gerais. Pelo menos quatro outros grandes mercados especializados em bens específicos, como gado, vinho, peixe e ervas e legumes, mas o fórum romano atraiu a maior parte do tráfego.
Todas as novas cidades, como Timgad, foram projetadas de acordo com um plano de grade ortogonal que facilitou o transporte e o comércio. As cidades estavam ligadas por boas estradas. Rios navegáveis foram amplamente utilizados e alguns canais foram escavados, mas não deixaram arqueologia tão clara como as estradas e, consequentemente, tendem a ser subestimados. Um mecanismo importante para a expansão do comércio foi a paz. Todos os assentamentos, especialmente os menores, podem estar localizados em posições economicamente racionais. Antes e depois do Império Romano, as posições defensivas no topo da colina eram preferidas para pequenos assentamentos e a pirataria tornava o assentamento costeiro particularmente perigoso para todos, menos para as maiores cidades.
Mesmo antes da república, o Reino Romano estava envolvido em comércio regular usando o rio Tibre. Antes que as Guerras Púnicas mudassem completamente a natureza do comércio no Mediterrâneo, a república romana teve importantes trocas comerciais com Cartago. Entrou em vários acordos comerciais e políticos com a sua cidade rival, além de se envolver em simples comércio varejista. O Império Romano negociou com os chineses sobre a Rota da Seda.
A arqueologia marítima e manuscritos antigos da antiguidade clássica mostram evidências de vastas frotas comerciais romanas. Os restos mais substanciais deste comércio são os restos de infra-estrutura de portos, molhes, armazéns e faróis em portos como Civitavecchia, Ostia, Portus, Leptis Magna e Cesaréia Marítima. Em Roma, o Monte Testaccio é uma homenagem à escala deste comércio. Tal como acontece com a maioria das tecnologias romanas, os navios comerciais de mar romanos não tiveram avanços significativos em relação aos navios gregos dos séculos anteriores, embora a cobertura de cascos de proteção tenha sido mais comum.
Os romanos usavam barcos a vela de casco redondo. A proteção "policial" mediterrânea contínua ao longo de vários séculos foi um dos principais fatores de sucesso do comércio romano, já que as estradas romanas eram mais projetadas para pés ou cascos do que para rodas e não suportavam o transporte econômico de mercadorias por longas distâncias. Os navios romanos utilizados teriam sido uma presa fácil para os piratas, se não fossem as frotas de galeras libanesas e as trirremes da marinha romana.
As mercadorias volumosas de baixo valor, como grãos e materiais de construção, eram comercializadas apenas por rotas marítimas, uma vez que o custo do transporte marítimo era 60 vezes menor que o da terra. Artigos básicos e commodities como cereais para fazer rolos de pão e papiro para produção de livros foram importados do Egito ptolemaico para a Itália de maneira contínua.
O comércio sobre o Oceano Índico floresceu no 1º e 2º século EC. Os marinheiros fizeram uso da monção para atravessar o oceano desde os portos de Berenice, Leulos Limen e Myos Hormos, na costa do Mar Vermelho do Egito romano, até os portos de Muziris e Nelkynda, na costa do Malabar. Os principais parceiros comerciais no sul da Índia eram as dinastias tâmil dos Pandyas, Cholas e Cheras. Muitos artefatos romanos foram encontrados na Índia; por exemplo, no sítio arqueológico de Arikamedu perto de hoje Pondicherry. Descrições meticulosas dos portos e itens de comércio ao redor do Oceano Índico podem ser encontradas na obra grega Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Contatos comerciais foram feitos com a Índia. Hoards de moedas romanas foram encontradas no sul da Índia durante a história do comércio romano-indiano. Objetos romanos foram encontrados na Índia, na cidade portuária de Arikamedu, que era um centro de comércio durante essa era.
O Hou Hanshu (História da Dinastia Chinesa de Han Posterior) relatou a primeira das várias embaixadas romanas na China enviadas por um imperador romano, provavelmente Marco Aurélio a julgar pela data de chegada de 166 (Antonino Pio é outra possibilidade, mas ele morreu em 161 A confusão surge porque Marcus Aurelius tomou os nomes de seu antecessor como nomes adicionais, como uma marca de respeito e assim é referido na história chinesa como "An Tun", ou seja, "Antoninus"). A missão veio do Sul e, portanto, provavelmente por mar, entrando na China pela fronteira de Jinan ou Tonkin. Trouxe presentes de chifres de rinoceronte, marfim e tartaruga que provavelmente haviam sido adquiridos no sul da Ásia.
A missão chegou à capital chinesa de Luoyang em 166 e foi recebida pelo Imperador Huan da dinastia Han. Na mesma época, e possivelmente através desta embaixada, os chineses adquiriram um tratado de astronomia de Daqin (Roma).
No entanto, na ausência de qualquer registro disso no lado romano da rota da seda, pode ser que os "embaixadores" fossem na verdade livre-cambistas agindo independentemente de Aurelius.
A partir do século III, um texto chinês, o Weilue, descreve os produtos do Império Romano e as rotas para ele.
Comércio e Religião.
Mercúrio, que originalmente era apenas o deus dos mercatores e o comércio de grãos, acabou se tornando o deus de todos que estavam envolvidos em atividades comerciais. No Mercuralia em 14 de maio, um comerciante romano faria os rituais apropriados de devoção a Mercúrio e imploraria ao deus que retirasse dele e de seus pertences a culpa proveniente de toda a trapaça que ele fizera a seus clientes e fornecedores.
A maioria do povo do Império Romano vivia em privação, com uma parte insignificante da população envolvida no comércio, sendo muito mais pobre que a elite. A produção industrial era mínima, devido ao fato de que a maioria pobre não podia pagar pelos mercados de produtos. O avanço tecnológico foi severamente prejudicado por esse fato. A urbanização na parte ocidental do império também foi mínima devido à pobreza da região. Escravos representando a maioria dos meios de produção industrial, ao invés de tecnologia.
Durante séculos, os assuntos monetários da República Romana haviam permanecido nas mãos do Senado. Essa elite gostava de se apresentar como firme e fiscalmente conservadora.
O aerarium (tesouro público) era supervisionado por membros do governo que se elevavam em poder e prestígio, os Questores, Praetors e, eventualmente, os Prefeitos. Com o alvorecer do Império Romano, uma grande mudança ocorreu, como os imperadores assumiram as rédeas do controle financeiro. Augusto adotou um sistema que, aparentemente, era justo para o senado. Assim como o mundo estava dividido em províncias designadas como imperiais ou senatoriais, o mesmo era o tesouro. Todos os tributos trazidos de províncias controladas pelo Senado foram entregues ao aerário, enquanto o dos territórios imperiais foi para o tesouro do imperador, o fisco.
Inicialmente, esse processo de distribuição parecia funcionar, embora o tecnicismo jurídico não disfarçasse a supremacia do imperador ou seu direito freqüentemente usado de transferir fundos regularmente do aerarium para o fisco. O fisco realmente tomou forma após o reinado de Augusto e Tibério. Começou como um fundo privado (fisco significando bolsa ou cestinha), mas cresceu para incluir todos os dinheiros imperiais, não apenas as propriedades privadas, mas também todas as terras públicas e finanças sob o olhar imperial.
A propriedade dos governantes cresceu a tal ponto que as mudanças tiveram que ser feitas a partir do terceiro século, certamente sob o domínio de Septímio Severo. A partir de então, o tesouro imperial foi dividido. O fisco foi contratado para administrar a receita real do governo, enquanto um patrimônio foi criado para manter a fortuna privada, a herança da casa real. Há uma questão considerável quanto à natureza exata dessa avaliação, envolvendo possivelmente uma res privata tão comum no Império Tardio.
Assim como o Senado tinha seus próprios agentes financeiros, os imperadores também o faziam. O chefe do fisco nos primeiros anos era o racional, originalmente um liberto devido ao desejo de Augusto de colocar o cargo nas mãos de um servo livre das exigências de classe da sociedade tradicional. Nos anos seguintes, a corrupção e a reputação do liberto forçaram administradores novos e mais confiáveis. Desde o tempo de Adriano (117-138), qualquer racionalidade veio da Ordem Equestre (equites) e permaneceu assim através do caos do século III e na era de Diocleciano.
Com Diocleciano veio uma série de reformas massivas, e o controle total sobre as finanças do Império caiu para o governo central agora mais forte. Sob Constantino este engrandecimento continuou com o surgimento de um ministro das finanças nomeado, o vem sacrarum largitionum (contagem das largesses sagradas). Ele mantinha o tesouro geral e a entrada de todas as receitas. Seus poderes foram direcionados para o controle do novo arsenal do sacro, resultado da combinação do aerário e do fisco.
O vem sacrarum largitionum foi uma figura de tremenda influência. Ele era responsável por todos os impostos, examinava bancos, casas de moeda e minas em todos os lugares, cuidava de todas as formas de indústria e pagava os orçamentos de muitos departamentos do estado. Para realizar essas muitas tarefas, ele foi auxiliado por uma vasta burocracia. Logo abaixo do vem sacrarum estavam as justificativas posicionadas em cada diocese. Eles agiam como chefes territoriais, enviando agentes, as justificativas, para coletar todo o dinheiro em tributos, impostos ou taxas. Eles poderiam ir praticamente em qualquer lugar e eram a extensão mais visível do governo nos séculos IV e V.
Somente os prefeitos pretorianos que eram responsáveis pelo suprimento do exército, as fábricas de armamentos imperiais, os tecelões, a manutenção do posto estatal e do magister officiorum e do rerum privatarum poderiam contrariar o peso político e financeiro do vem sacrarum largitionum. O magister officiorum (mestre de ofícios) tomava todas as principais decisões relativas a questões de inteligência, recebendo um grande orçamento, sobre o qual o comes sacrarum largitionum provavelmente só tinha autoridade parcial. Após o fim do reinado de Constantino, o vem sacrarum largitionum gradualmente perdeu poder para os prefeitos, à medida que as taxas de seu departamento passaram a ser coletadas cada vez mais em ouro, e não em parentes. No século V, o pessoal de nível diocesano já não tinha muita importância, embora continuassem em seus deveres.
Dado o aumento do tamanho das propriedades e explorações imperiais, a res privata não só sobreviveu, mas também foi oficialmente dividida em dois tesouros diferentes, a res privatae de terras reais e o patromonium sacrae, ou herança imperial. Ambos estavam sob a jurisdição do vem rerum privatarum. Ele também recebia quaisquer aluguéis ou quotas de terras e territórios imperiais.
sistema de comércio romano
Estradas na Roma Antiga.
Estradas romanas foram uma parte vital do desenvolvimento do estado romano, de cerca de 500 aC, através da expansão durante a República Romana e o Império Romano. Estradas romanas permitiram que os romanos movimentassem exércitos, trocassem mercadorias e se comunicassem.
O sistema rodoviário romano abrangia mais de 400.000 km de estradas, incluindo mais de 80.500 km de estradas pavimentadas. Quando Roma atingiu o auge de seu poder, nada menos que 29 grandes rodovias militares irradiavam da cidade. Colinas foram cortadas e ravinas profundas preenchidas.
Em um ponto, o Império Romano foi dividido em 113 províncias atravessadas por 372 grandes ligações rodoviárias. Só na Gália, nada menos que 21.000 km de estrada foram melhorados e na Grã-Bretanha pelo menos 4.000 km. Havia caminhos de cada lado da estrada.
Os romanos se tornaram adeptos da construção de estradas, que eles chamavam de viae. Eles foram destinados para transportar material de um local para outro. Era permitido andar ou passar e dirigir gado, veículos ou trânsito de qualquer descrição ao longo do caminho. O viae diferia das muitas outras estradas menores ou mais difíceis, caminhos de rédeas, desvios e trilhas. Para fazer as estradas, os romanos usavam pedras, pedras quebradas misturadas com cimento e areia, cimento misturado com azulejos quebrados, pedras curvas - assim a água podia escorrer, e no topo eles usavam pedras de pavimentação apertadas.
As redes rodoviárias romanas eram importantes tanto para manter a estabilidade do império quanto para sua expansão. As legiões aproveitaram-se delas e algumas ainda são usadas milênios depois. Na antiguidade posterior, essas estradas desempenharam um papel importante nos avanços militares romanos, oferecendo caminhos de invasão aos bárbaros.
As leis das Doze Tabelas, datadas de aproximadamente 450 aC, especificam que uma estrada deve ter 8 pés (2,45 m) de largura, onde reta e 16 pés (4,90 m), onde curvada. Práticas reais variavam deste padrão. As Tabelas ordenam aos romanos que construam estradas e dêem aos viajantes o direito de passar por terras privadas onde a estrada está em mau estado. A construção de estradas que não necessitariam de reparos frequentes tornou-se um objetivo ideológico, além de construí-las o mais reto possível, a fim de construir as estradas mais estreitas possíveis e, assim, economizar material.
A lei romana definia o direito de usar uma estrada como um serviço ou reivindicação. O ius eundi ("direito de ir") estabeleceu uma reivindicação para usar um iter, ou trilha, através de terra privada; o ius agendi ("direito de dirigir"), um actus ou pista de carruagem. Uma via combinou ambos os tipos de servos, desde que fosse da largura apropriada, que era determinada por um árbitro. A largura padrão foi o latitudo legitima de 8 pés (2,4 m). Nestas leis bastante secas, podemos ver a prevalência do domínio público sobre o privado, que caracterizou a república.
O direito e a tradição romana proibiam o uso de veículos em áreas urbanas, exceto em certos casos. Mulheres casadas e funcionários do governo em negócios poderiam montar. O Lex Iulia Municipalis restringiu os carrinhos comerciais ao acesso noturno à cidade dentro das muralhas e a menos de 1,6 km das muralhas.
Nas noticias .
De 43 a 410 dC, os romanos construíram cerca de 2.000 milhas de estradas em todo o Reino Unido, projetadas para permitir que as tropas se movimentassem rapidamente e fornecendo rotas vitais para o comércio, o comércio e o transporte de mercadorias. Um estudante ambicioso agora re-imaginou as estradas da era romana do Reino Unido como um moderno sistema de metrô. Embora as estradas fossem muito sofisticadas para o seu tempo, o transporte não era tão avançado, e uma viagem de Londres a York - que hoje levaria quatro horas de carro - levaria cinco dias para ser concluída em uma carruagem.
Estradas romanas variam de simples estradas de veludo a estradas pavimentadas, usando caminhos profundos de escombros como uma camada subjacente para garantir que eles se mantenham secos, pois a água fluiria entre as pedras e fragmentos de escombros, em vez de se tornar lama em solos argilosos.
Construção de uma estrada.
A distinção entre funcionários e oficiais de linha também se aplicava ao exército romano. Entre os funcionários, havia uma unidade chamada architecti, "construtores-chefe", responsável por toda a construção militar, que era a construção de estradas. Estes eram obrigados a serem homens instruídos. A geometria, claro, era um requisito central de sua educação.
Os arquitetos tinham uma equipe em tempo integral de agrimensores ("agrimensores") e libratores ("niveladores"). As equipes de trabalhadores da construção foram tomadas ad hoc das fileiras dos legionários. Além de seus braços, suas rações e seus utensílios, cada soldado carregava uma serra, machadinha, foice, picareta e pá. Augusto decidiu, por uma questão de política, manter os soldados ocupados (e, portanto, fora de problemas), transformando-os em construção.
Esse trabalho melhorou sua força e resistência, tornando-os quase imbatíveis, mas provocou queixas constantes sobre o trabalho de última hora, que às vezes se transformava em motim.
Como era de se esperar, as legiões buscaram assistência involuntária por seu trabalho duro. Escravos, prisioneiros de guerra e criminosos condenados muitas vezes desempenhavam as tarefas mais difíceis de extração e transporte de pedras. Eles também foram usados para reparo de estradas. Se eles executaram essas tarefas em cadeias não é conhecido. Chicote, no entanto, era comum, para o qual o verbo era verberare. Os espancamentos não eram de modo algum confinados aos escravos. De fato, um dos símbolos da autoridade romana eram os fasces, um feixe de chicotes.
Acredita-se que os romanos herdaram a arte da construção de estradas dos etruscos. Sem dúvida, a arte cresceu à medida que evoluiu e também incorporou boas idéias de outras culturas.
Depois que os arquitetos examinaram o local da estrada proposta e determinaram onde deveria ir, os agrimensores começaram a examinar o leito da estrada. Eles usaram dois dispositivos principais, a haste e um chamado groma, que os ajudou a obter ângulos retos.
O gromatici, o equivalente romano dos homens da vara, colocou varas e colocou uma linha chamada de rigor. Como eles não possuíam nada parecido com um trânsito, um arquiteto tentou alcançar a retidão olhando as hastes e comandando o gromatici para movê-las conforme necessário.
Usando o gromae, eles colocaram uma grade no plano da estrada.
Os libratores começaram seu trabalho. Usando arados e legionários com espadas, eles escavaram o leito da estrada até o leito rochoso ou pelo menos até o solo mais firme que puderam encontrar.
A escavação foi chamada de fossa, "vala". Era tipicamente 15 'abaixo da superfície, mas a profundidade variava de acordo com o terreno.
A estrada foi construída enchendo a vala. O método variava de acordo com a localização geográfica, os materiais disponíveis e o terreno, mas o plano ou ideal em que o arquiteto visava era sempre o mesmo. O leito da estrada estava em camadas.
Na fossa foram despejadas grandes quantidades de entulho, cascalho e pedra, qualquer que fosse o material disponível. Às vezes, uma camada de areia era colocada, se pudesse ser encontrada. Quando chegou a poucos metros da superfície, estava coberta de cascalho e calcada, um processo chamado pavimento ou pavimento. A superfície plana era então o pavimento. Poderia ser usado como a estrada, ou camadas adicionais poderiam ser construídas. Um statumen ou "fundação" de pedras planas fixadas em cimento pode apoiar as camadas adicionais.
Os passos finais utilizaram concreto, que os romanos haviam redescoberto exclusivamente. Eles parecem ter misturado a argamassa e as pedras na fossa. Primeiro, uma camada de concreto de vários centímetros, o rudus, depois uma camada de vários centímetros de concreto fino, o núcleo, subia para o pavimento ou o lume. Para dentro ou para o núcleo, um curso de pedras de pavimentação poligonais ou quadradas, como você vê na foto, chamado de summa crusta. O crusta foi coroado para drenagem. Não está claro se alguma terminologia padrão foi usada; as palavras para os diferentes elementos talvez variassem de região para região.
Hoje, o concreto se desgastou dos espaços ao redor das pedras, dando a impressão de uma estrada muito acidentada, mas a superfície original estava, sem dúvida, muito mais perto de ser plana. Estas estradas notáveis são resistentes a chuva, congelamento e inundações. Eles precisavam de pouco reparo.
Arquitetos romanos preferiram projetar soluções para obstáculos em vez de contorná-los.
As travessias de rio foram alcançadas por pontes ou pontes. Lajes simples passaram por cima de ranhuras. Uma ponte poderia ser de madeira, pedra ou ambos. Pontes de madeira foram construídas em estacas afundadas no rio ou em píeres de pedra. Pontes maiores ou mais permanentes requeriam arcos. As pontes romanas eram tão bem construídas que muitas estão em uso hoje.
Causeways foram construídos sobre o solo pantanoso. A estrada foi marcada pela primeira vez com estacas. Entre eles foram afundados grandes quantidades de pedra, de modo a elevar a calçada de 6 metros acima do pântano. Nas províncias, os romanos muitas vezes não se incomodavam com uma calçada de pedra, mas usavam estradas de madeira (pontes longi).
Afloramentos de pedras, ravinas ou terrenos acidentados ou montanhosos pediam cortes e túneis. As estradas romanas geralmente subiam e desciam as colinas, em vez de um padrão serpentino. Graus de 10% -12% são conhecidos em terrenos comuns, 15% -20% no país montanhoso.
O financiamento da construção e reparação de estradas era uma responsabilidade do governo. Os funcionários responsáveis pela captação de recursos eram os curatores viarum, nos quais você pode ver a palavra inglesa, curador. Eles tinham vários métodos disponíveis para eles. Cidadãos particulares com interesse na estrada podem contribuir para a sua reparação. Altos funcionários podem distribuir generosidade para ser usada em estradas. Os censores, responsáveis pela moral pública e obras públicas, deveriam financiar os reparos em sua pecunia. Além desses meios, os impostos eram necessários.
A beleza e a grandeza das estradas podem nos levar a acreditar que qualquer cidadão romano poderia usá-las de graça, mas não era esse o caso. Os pedágios abundam, especialmente nas pontes. Muitas vezes eles foram coletados no portão da cidade. O frete ficou mais pesado ainda com os impostos de importação e exportação. Estas eram apenas as acusações de usar as estradas. Custos de serviços na jornada subiram de lá.
Viae preparada (estradas) começou na história como as ruas de Roma. As leis das Doze Tabelas, datadas de aproximadamente 450 aC, especificam que uma estrada deve ter 8 pés de largura, onde reta e 16, onde curvada. As mesas ordenam que os romanos construam estradas e dão aos viajantes o direito de passar por terras privadas onde a estrada está em mau estado. Construir estradas que não necessitariam de reparos frequentes tornou-se um objetivo ideológico.
A lei romana definia o direito de usar uma estrada como um serviço ou reivindicação. O jus eundi ("direito de ir") estabeleceu uma reivindicação para usar um iter, ou trilha, através de terra privada; o ius agendi ("direito de dirigir"), um actus ou pista de carruagem. Uma via combinou ambos os tipos de servos, desde que fosse da largura apropriada, que era determinada por um árbitro. A largura padrão era o latitudo legitima de 8 pés. Nestas leis bastante secas, podemos ver a prevalência do domínio público sobre o privado, que caracterizou a república.
Com a conquista da Itália, viadias preparadas foram estendidas de Roma e seus arredores para os municípios periféricos, às vezes cobrindo as estradas anteriores.
Construir viae era uma responsabilidade militar e, portanto, estava sob a jurisdição de um cônsul. O processo tinha um nome militar, viam munire, como se a via fosse uma fortificação. Municípios, no entanto, foram responsáveis por suas próprias estradas, que os romanos chamavam viae vicinales. A via conectado duas cidades. Alguns links na rede eram tão longos quanto 55 milhas. Os construtores sempre visam uma largura de regulação, mas as larguras reais foram medidas entre 3 '9 "e 24'.
Os construtores visam a linearidade direcional. Muitas seções longas são retas, mas não devem ser pensadas como todas elas. A ênfase romana na construção de estradas retas muitas vezes resultou em áreas íngremes relativamente impraticáveis para a maioria do tráfego econômico: ao longo dos anos, os próprios romanos perceberam e construíram alternativas mais longas, porém mais administráveis, às estradas existentes.
Viae foram geralmente colocados centralmente no campo. Os recursos da via eram conectados à via pela viae rusticae, ou estradas secundárias. Estradas principais ou secundárias podem ser pavimentadas, ou podem ficar sem pavimento, com uma superfície de cascalho, como no norte da África. Estas estradas preparadas, mas não pavimentadas, eram viae glareae ou sternendae ("a ser espalhada"). Além das estradas secundárias foram viae terrenae, "estradas de terra".
Um roteiro do império revela que foi atado bastante completamente com uma rede de viae preparada. Além das fronteiras não há estradas; no entanto, pode-se presumir que caminhos e estradas de terra permitissem algum transporte.
Viajando por uma estrada.
Antes de 250 aC, a via Appia, e depois de 124 aC, a maioria viae, foi dividida em milhas numeradas por marcos. As palavras que traduzimos como milha são milia passuum, "mil passos", que somavam cerca de 1620 jardas, 1480 metros.
Um marco, ou miliária, era uma coluna circular sobre uma base retangular sólida, colocada a dois pés do solo, com vários metros de altura e 20 "de diâmetro, pesando cerca de duas toneladas.
Na base estava inscrito o número da milha em relação à estrada em que estava. Em um painel à altura dos olhos, estava a distância até o fórum em Roma e várias outras informações sobre os funcionários que fizeram ou consertaram a estrada e quando.
Estes miliaria são documentos históricos valiosos agora. Suas inscrições são coletadas no Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
Os romanos tinham uma preferência pela padronização sempre que podiam, e assim Augusto, depois de se tornar comissário permanente de estradas em 20 aC, estabeleceu o miliarium aurum (marco dourado) perto do templo de Saturno. Todas as estradas foram consideradas a partir deste monumento de bronze dourado. Nele foram listadas todas as principais cidades do império e distâncias para elas. Constantino chamou-lhe o umbigo Romae (umbigo de Roma).
Os marcos permitiram que distâncias e locais fossem conhecidos e registrados exatamente. Não demorou muito para que os historiadores começassem a se referir ao marco em que um evento ocorreu.
Não era incomum que os antigos romanos viajassem longas distâncias por toda a Europa. Na verdade, durante o Império Romano, Roma tinha uma incrível rede rodoviária que se estendia do norte da Inglaterra até o sul do Egito. Em seu pico, a rede de estradas pavimentadas de pedra do Império alcançou 53.000 milhas (85.000 quilômetros)! As estradas romanas eram muito confiáveis, elas eram as mais confiáveis nas estradas da Europa por muitos séculos após o colapso do Império Romano. Pode-se argumentar que eles eram mais confiáveis do que nossas estradas hoje, considerando quanto tempo eles poderiam durar e quão pouca manutenção precisavam.
Estações Way e Traveler Inns.
A legion on the march didn't need a way station, as it brought its own baggage train (impedimenta) and constructed its own camp (castra) every evening at the side of the road. Other officials or people on official business, however, had no legion at their service, and so the government maintained way stations, or mansiones ("staying places"), for their use. Passports were required for identification.
Carts could travel about 8 miles per day, pedestrians a little more, and so each mansio was about 15 to 18 miles from the next one. There the official traveller found a complete villa dedicated to his refreshment. Oftentimes a permanent military camp or a town grew up around the mansio.
Non-official travelers needed refreshment too, and at the same locations along the road. A private system of cauponae were placed near the mansiones. They performed the same functions but were somewhat disreputable, as they were frequented by thieves and prostitutes.
Graffiti decorate the walls of the few whose ruins have been found.
Genteel travelers needed something better than cauponae. In the early days of the viae, when little unofficial existed, houses placed near the road were required by law to offer hospitality on demand.
Frequented houses no doubt became the first tabernae, which were hostels, rather than the "taverns" we know today.
As Rome grew, so did its tabernae, becoming more luxurious and acquiring good or bad reputations as the case may be. One of the best hotels was the Tabernae Caediciae at Sinuessa on the Via Appia. It had a large storage room containing barrels of wine, cheese and ham.
Many cities of today grew up around a taberna complex, such as Rheinzabern in the Rhineland, and Saverne in Alsace.
A third system of way stations serviced vehicles and animals: the mutationes ("changing stations"). They were located every 12-18 miles. In these complexes, the driver could purchase the services of wheelrights, cartwrights, and equarii medici, or veterinarians.
Using these stations in chariot relays, the emperor Tiberius hastened 500 miles in 24 hours to join his brother, Drusus Germanicus, who was dying of gangrene as a result of a fall from a horse.
Roman law and tradition forbade the use of vehicles in urban areas, except in certain cases. Married women and government officials on business could ride. The Lex Iulia Municipalis restricted commercial carts to night-time access to the city within the walls and within a mile outside the walls. Outside the cities, Romans were avid riders and rode on or drove quite a number of vehicle types, some of which are mentioned here.
For purposes of description, Roman vehicles can be divided into the car, the coach and the cart. Cars were used to transport one or two individuals, coaches were used to transport parties, and carts to transport cargo.
Of the cars, the most popular was the currus ("car"), a standard chariot form descending to the Romans from a greater antiquity. The top was open, the front closed. One survives in the Vatican. It carried a driver and a passenger. A currus of two horses was a biga; of three horses, a triga; and of four horses a quadriga. The tires were of iron. When not in use, its wheels were removed for easier storage.
A more luxurious version, the carpentum, transported women and officials. It had an arched overhead covering of cloth and was drawn by mules. A lighter version, the cisium, equivalent to our gig, was open above and in front and had a seat.
Drawn by one or two mules or horses, it was used for cab work, the cab drivers being called cisiani. The builder was a cisarius. Of the coaches, the main stay was the raeda or reda, which had 4 wheels. The high sides formed a sort of box in which seats were placed, with a notch on each side for entry. It carried several people with baggage up to the legal limit of 1000 pounds. It was drawn by teams of oxen, horses or mules. A cloth top could be put on for weather, in which case it resembled a covered wagon.
The reda was probably the main vehicle for travel on the viae. Redae meritoriae were hired coaches. The fiscalis reda was a government coach. The driver and the builder were both named a raedarius. Of the carts, the main one was the plaustrum or plostrum. This was simply a platform of boards attached to wheels and a cross-tree. The wheels, or tympana, were solid and were several inches thick. The sides could be built up with boards or rails. A large wicker basket was sometimes placed on it. A two-wheel version existed. The 4-wheel type was the plaustrum maius.
The military used a standard wagon. Their transportation service was the cursus clabularis, after the standard wagon, called a carrus clabularius, clabularis, or clavularis, or clabulare. It transported the impedimenta, or baggage of a column.
Post Offices and Services.
Two postal services were available under the empire, a public and a private.
The Cursus publicus, founded by Augustus, carried the mail of officials by relay throughout the Roman road system. The vehicle for carrying mail was a cisium with a box, but for special delivery, a horse and rider was faster. A relay of horses could carry a letter 500 miles in 24 hours. The postman wore a characteristic leather hat, the petanus. The postal service was a somewhat dangerous occupation, as postmen were a target for bandits and enemies of Rome. Private mail of the well-to-do was carried by tabellarii, an organization of slaves available for a price.
The Romans and ancient travelers in general did not use maps. They may have existed as specialty items in some of the libraries, but they were hard to copy and were not in general use. On the Roman road system, however, the traveler needed some idea of where he was going, how to get there, and how long it would take.
The itinerarium filled this need. In origin it was simply a list of cities along a road. It was only a short step from lists to a master list. To sort out the lists, the Romans drew diagrams of parallel lines showing the branches of the roads. Parts of these were copied and sold on the streets.
The very best featured symbols for cities, way stations, water courses, and so on. They cannot be considered maps, as they did not represent landforms.
The Roman government from time to time undertook to produce a master itinerary of all Roman roads. Julius Caesar and Mark Antony commissioned the first known such effort in 44 BC. Zenodoxus, Theodotus and Polyclitus, three Greek geographers, were hired to survey the system and compile a master itinerary. This task required over 25 years.
The result was a stone engraved master itinerarium set up near the Pantheon, from which travelers and itinerary sellers could make copies.
Another master itinerary, the Itinerarium Provinciarum Antonini Augusti (the Antonine Itinerary) is known to have been undertaken in 217 AD. It was first printed in 1521 and after many reprintings survives today. Another major surviving itinerary is the Tabula Peutingeriana. The Ravenna Cosmography dates from the 7th century, but repeats earlier material.
Archaeology has turned up some itinerary material in unexpected places. The Cups of Cadiz, four silver cups found by workmen excavating a foundation at Bracciano in 1852, are engraved with the names and distances of stations between Cadiz and Rome.
The term itinerary changed meaning over the centuries. In the Itinerarium Burdigalense (Bordeaux Pilgrim, 333 AD), the itinerary is a description of what route to take to the Holy Land. The Itinerarium Alexandri is a list of the conquests of Alexander the Great. Today it means either a travel journal or a list of recommended stops.
Ancient Roman Trade.
Ancient Roman trade is a subject of many facets particularly when we consider that ancient Rome is difficult to define in terms of time and extension: "Ancient Rome" lasted close to a millennium and the culture, society and world within it existed changed enormously. so too the extent of Ancient Rome ranged from a few villages on hilltops near the river Tiber across to an enormous empire. Rome alone grew to having over 1 million inhabitants.
Having set the above conditions it is evident that this essay will have to make a number of simplifications, give some ideas as to the fundamental mechanisms involved and point to areas of further investigation.
An ideal example to investigate is the wine trade, such as was active in cities such as Pompeii because it has left many examples and traces behind, ranging from references in literature through to inscriptions and entire farms, not to mention shiploads of amphoras along the coasts of countries it was exported to.
Before looking at the various details of such trade it is important to set some essential points:
Eu. The Roman economy was essentially a competitive market economy, capitalistic in nature, although with many imperfections, for example the cost of transport over land was so high as to imply that some foreign bulk products such as wine imported from Spain could be cheaper than similar product produced 100km/100miles away.
It is worth noting that trade was bi-directional: Rome itself was often in need of imports of grain and wine for example to support the livelihood of the enormous population and these supplies wouldn't necessarily come from other parts of Italy. There was, by-and-large, free trade with a single Roman currency throughout the empire. This fostered competition and enabled all sorts of exotic goods to be acquired from the most distant lands. A couple of interesting examples of Roman free trade and its effects are:
Some Roman mosaics showing bowls of fruit containing pineapples: Pineapples don't grow anywhere near Italy! When Pompeii was hit by the volcano there was a huge effect on the agricultural markets, two year's worth of wine production were affected and hence so too was the price of wine which saw a sharp increase. The surge in demand for wine (or rather the sharp reduction in supply) meant that other land which was dedicated to grain and other foodstuffs was switched to wine, hence creating a temporary knock-on effect on food supplies and prices.
ii. The economic cycle which enabled intensive investment and trading was essentially built around military expansion and Roman slave labour, a little like many western countries in the 14th-19th centuries. The mechanism was something like the following:
Military campaigns brought land & wealth & slaves to those who had financed the campaigns (the patrician upper class families/the Roman state) and eventually make their way onto Rome’s markets. The land might be redistributed as retirement payment to the soldiers. Much of the wealth and booty would be redistributed to those who financed the campaigns, similarly to wealthy businessmen financing financial ventures and to some degree to the state and retiring soldiers (1.5 hectares each). Land distribution was a bone of contention with the plebeians who saw themselves fight the wars but gain little from them (see the Roman social wars and Gracchi brothers). Patricians spend the wealth on land and large holdings which they farm intensively by use of the cheap slaves which had been taken during the campaigns. The cost of a slave varied greatly , also in line with supply and availability. But on the whole we might consider the cost of a slave being similar to the cost of purchasing a motorbike or car nowadays (including the second hand market). People working with or for the Patricians would then ship and trade the produce into the provinces and along trade routes which are either hospitable or rendered hospitable by yet more military campaigns. frequently the merchants were well ahead of the military campaigns, a great example below is that of the wine trade in Gaul in exchange for slaves which actually came to an abrupt stop because of the military invasion of the region by Caesar. very much as we see in modern economies, this economic cycle generated a number of supporting trades such as pottery and Roman amphoras to carry the produce, infrastructure construction and shipbuilding to carry it to various markets where there might be strongest demand, not to mention the lucrative businesses of money lending and banking.
The above cycle came somewhat unstuck when the empire's expansionist period came to an end around the 2nd century AD and hence reducing the flow of cheap slavery, forcing the landowning upper class to sell or break up their vast land into smaller tenancies which paid a regular tribute, similar to the the "tithes" in medieval Britain.
Trade and economy can also be said to be an expression of the people who make up society and of the relationship between these people. At the end of the day, a market economy is founded on entrepreneurs: individuals who have a particular drive to make something out of nothing, who are able to quantify risks, are operating in an environment which has suitable infrastructure and of course have access to finance. Rome was full of such examples, from both ends of the social pyramid and even including a number of the slaves. We can perceive something of this from a good number of funeral engravings, memorials and tomb stones, for example a tomb stone depicting an ancient Roman family wine trade.
An interesting example of the understanding for investment and liquidity is to be had from Cicero who suggested that if you were going to liquidate part of your capital it would be better to sell off your vineyards rather than woodland since timber could easily be sold in times of need, ie easier to liquidate if necessary.
The ancient Roman wine trade:
A quick look at the development of the mediterranean wine trade gives great insight into some of the factors influencing Ancient Roman (wine) trade: whilst the example taken is the product of wine, the factors affecting the trade are applicable to many if not all other items of commerce.
The Greeks were first to achieve mass production of wine for export which quickly made its way into southern and central Italy. However the Etruscans were also quick to start their own mass production for both internal consumption and export. From the end of the 7 th Century BC the major Etruscan centres were Vulci and Caere in central Italy, not distant to the North of Rome which given their position enjoyed good demand from the Celtic north. It is the amphoras of easily identifiable shape which enable such commerce to be analised and tracked along the Tyrrhenian sea to Provence and Catalunia along the Rhine and into central Europe. This Italic production was also enjoyed by the Greek Marseilles where between the years 600 and 530BC Roman wine constituted some 90% of all wine imports.
A similar supply-demand mechanism is to be found with the increase in wine production in southern France which gradually enabled Etruscan imports to be limited.
During this period Rome was seeing a continuous growth in its fortunes. We shouldn’t forget that the Roman kings of the time were principally Etruscans with a clear view of international trade and access to the necessary information, yet wine production didn’t increase significantly: available farming land had to be dedicated to the growth of cereals to feed the population. This need was undone around the 3rd century BC when Rome managed to take control of Sicily – a true granary within the Mediterranean area – hence allowing farmland in central Italy to be dedicated to the growth of higher quality product.
It is of interest to note that conquest of Sicily involved direct confrontation with Carthage, which in turn was a great stimulus to Ancient Roman investment in naval skills, technology and infrastructure: essential to enabling flourishing international trade.
Dressel 1: Roman attitude to international commerce by sea was initially very cautious, we shouldn’t forget that the investments were made directly and at personal level by the Senatorial class and a single storm at sea could easily wipe out an entire year’s investment. During the 2 nd century BC the situation changed dramatically when such risks were outweighed by the immense profitability and strong economic boom brought by increasing access to cheap slavery. This surge of export can be identified by the vast finds of "Dressel 1" type Roman amphoras.
Wine from central Italy and Campania flowed in copious quantities into Gaul, Spain, North Africa and central Europe. The Roman merchants were frequently well ahead of the military. Estimates suggest that during the course of one century some 40milion amphoras were exported to Gaul alone. This is reflected in the 60 or so sunk ships found with Dressel1 amphoras along the French coast.
Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca Universalis 5,36,1) suggests the Gauls were so thirsty for Roman wine that they would exchange an amphora of wine for a slave which clearly strengthened Roman dominance of wine production.
Beyond Dressel1 amphoras:
Caesar’s conquest of Gaul mid 1 st C BC put an end to such lucrative slaves-for-wine Roman trade and enforced a more rational usage of agricultural land as had already happened in other regions of the budding empire. By the time of Augustus who followed Caesar to power, Rome’s population had reached more than 1M people and this necessarily implied importing food and wine from all parts of the empire, spurring the creation of yet more foreign production centres.
Economies of transport:
Whilst we can superficially take ancient Roman economy to be a market based capitalistic competitive approach. Roman technology and infrastructure weren’t so advanced as to enable a perfectly liquid economic mechanism: transport by sea was far cheaper than that over land and this generated some significant distortions: local Italian inland produce could economically travel some 100km and hence scarcely compete with the cheap imports from abroad. These dynamics particularly affected the production of wines intended for the mass markets: Italic wines were therefore forced to opt for quality/high value status which, so Galen tells us in the 2 nd Century AC, foreign wine producers continued to attempted to forge and unsuccessfully replace.
Amphoras for wine transport were replaced by the Gaulish barrel, known as "cupa", around the end of the 2 nd century AD. Wooden containers had been well known for some 4 centuries already although the Roman merchants and consumers had long distrusted them as producing poisoning effects (Natural History bk 16). Nevertheless the barrel’s advantages in terms of cost and lightness outweighed any effects it might have in terms of reduced conservation of wine flavour and bouquet.
Shopping in Ancient Rome.
Clearly, a fundamental mainstay of all economic and trade systems is the possibility of bring the produce to consumers and selling it. In Rome this was achieved through a well developed system of shops along streets as well as markets and dedicated "Forums", so for example there would be a forum for meat (the Forum Boarium), a forum which had money lenders etc and of course a currency and coinage system to permit trading and lending. More is said about Shopping in Ancient Rome.
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Trade in the Roman World.
published on 17 December 2013.
Regional, inter-regional and international trade was a common feature of the Roman world. A mix of state control and a free market approach ensured goods produced in one location could be exported far and wide. Cereals, wine and olive oil, in particular, were exported in huge quantities whilst in the other direction came significant imports of precious metals, marble, and spices.
Generally speaking, as with earlier and contemporary civilizations, the Romans gradually developed a more sophisticated economy following the creation of an agricultural surplus, population movement and urban growth, territorial expansion, technology innovation, taxation, the spread of coinage, and not insignificantly, the need to feed the great city of Rome itself and supply its huge army wherever it might be on campaign.
Propaganda.
The economy in the Roman world displayed features of both underdevelopment and high achievement. Elements of the former, some historians have argued (notably M. I.Finley), are an over-dependence on agriculture, a slow diffusion of technology, the high level of local town consumption rather than regional trade, and a low level of investment in industry. However, there is also evidence that from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE there was a significant rise in the proportion of workers involved in the production and services industries and greater trade between regions in essential commodities and manufactured goods. In the later empire period, although trade in the east increased - stimulated by the founding of Constantinople - trade in the western empire declined.
The Roman attitude to trade was somewhat negative, at least from the higher classes. Land ownership and agriculture were highly regarded as a source of wealth and status but commerce and manufacturing were seen as a less noble pursuit for the well-off. However, those rich enough to invest often overcame their scruples and employed slaves, freedmen, and agents ( negotiatores ) to manage their business affairs and reap the often vast rewards of commercial activity.
Traded Goods.
Whilst the archaeological evidence of trade can sometimes be patchy and misrepresentative, a combination of literary sources, coinage and such unique records as shipwrecks helps to create a clearer picture of just what the Romans traded, in what quantity, and where.
Propaganda.
Trade involved foodstuffs (e. g. olives, fish, meat, cereals, salt, prepared foods such as fish sauce, olive oil, wine and beer), animal products (e. g. leather and hides), objects made from wood, glass, or metals, textiles, pottery, and materials for manufacturing and construction such as glass, marble, wood, wool, bricks, gold, silver, copper, and tin. Finally, there was, of course, also the substantial trade in slaves.
The fact that many goods were produced as regional specialities on often very large estates, for example, wine from Egypt or olive oil from southern Spain, only increased the inter-regional trade of goods. That such large estates could produce a massive surplus for trade is evidenced at archaeological sites across the empire: wine producers in southern France with cellars capable of storing 100,000 litres, an olive oil factory in Libya with 17 presses capable of producing 100,000 litres a year, or gold mines in Spain producing 9,000 kilos of gold a year. Although towns were generally centres of consumption rather than production, there were exceptions where workshops could produce impressive quantities of goods. These 'factories' might have been limited to a maximum workforce of 30 but they were often collected together in extensive industrial zones in the larger cities and harbours, and in the case of ceramics, also in rural areas close to essential raw materials (clay and wood for the kilns).
Goods were not only exchanged across the Roman world, however, as bustling ports such as Gades, Ostia, Puteoli, Alexandria, and Antioch also imported goods from such far-flung places as Arabia, India, Southeast Asia, and China. Sometimes these goods followed land routes such as the well-established Silk Road or travelled by sea across the Indian Ocean. Such international trade was not necessarily limited to luxury goods such as pepper, spices (e. g. cloves, ginger, and cinnamon), coloured marble, silk, perfumes, and ivory, though, as the low quality pottery found in shipwrecks and geographical spread of terracotta oil lamps illustrates.
Propaganda.
Transporte.
Goods were transported across the Roman world but there were limitations caused by a lack of land transport innovation. The Romans are celebrated for their roads but in fact it remained much cheaper to transport goods by sea rather than by river or land as the cost ratio was approximately 1:5:28. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that sometimes the means of transport was determined by circumstances and not by choice and all three modes of transport grew significantly in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. In addition, although transport by sea was the cheapest and fastest method (1,000 nautical miles in 9 days) it could also be the riskiest - subject to the whims of weather and theft from piracy - and was restricted by the seasons as the period between November and March (at least) was regarded as being too unpredictable for safe passage.
From analysis of over 900 shipwrecks from the Roman period the most typical size of merchant vessel had a capacity for 75 tons of goods or 1500 amphorae but there were bigger vessels capable of transporting up to 300 tons of goods. One interesting example is the 40s CE Port Vendres II wreck located in the Mediterranean off the Spanish-French border. The cargo was taken from at least 11 different merchants and contained olive oil, sweet wine, fish sauce, fine pottery, glass, and ingots of tin, copper, and lead.
State Control.
In the imperial period there was great state control over trade in order to guarantee supply (the annona system) and even a state merchant fleet, replacing the system during the republic of paying subsidies ( vecturae ) to encourage private shipowners. There was a specific official in charge of the grain supply (the praefectus annonae ) who regulated the various shipowner associations ( collegia navicularii ). The state taxed the movement of goods between provinces and also controlled many local markets ( nundinae ) - often held once a week - as the establishment of a market by a large land-owner had to be approved by the Senate or emperor.
The greatest state expenditure was on the army, which required some 70% of the budget. The state's apparatus of taxation to acquire revenue may be considered a success in that, despite the tax burden, local prosperity and economic growth were not unduly hampered.
Evidence of state control can be seen in the many goods which were stamped or carried markers indicating their origin or manufacturer and in some cases guaranteeing their weight, purity or genuineness. Pottery, amphorae, bricks, glass, metal ingots (important for coinage), tiles, marble and wooden barrels were usually stamped and general goods for transportation carried metal tags or lead seals. These measures helped to control trade, provide product guarantees and prevent fraud. Inscriptions on olive oil amphorae were particularly detailed as they indicated the weight of the vessel empty and of the oil added, the place of production, the name of the merchant transporting them and the names and signatures of the officials who carried out these controls.
Trade was also carried out completely independent from the state, though, and was favoured by the development of banking. Although banking and money-lending generally remained a local affair there are records of merchants taking out a loan in one port and paying it off in another once the goods were delivered and sold on. There is also abundant evidence of a free-trade economy beyond the reaches of the empire and independent of the larger cities and army camps.
Conclusão.
Whatever the exact economic mechanisms and proportion of state to private enterprise, the scale of trade in the Roman world is hugely impressive and no other pre-industrial society came even close. Such mundane functional items as amphorae or oil lamps were produced in their millions and it has been estimated that in Rome alone the quantity of oil traded was 23,000,000 kilograms per year whilst the city's annual wine consumption was well over 1,000,000 hectolitres, probably nearer 2 million. These kinds of figures would not be seen again until industrialisation swept the developed world long after Roman traders had closed their accounting books and been forgotten by history.
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Conteúdo Relacionado.
Trade in Ancient Greece.
Food & Agriculture in Ancient Greece.
Trade in the Byzantine Empire.
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Bibliografia.
Barchiesi, A. (ed), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies (Oxford University Press, USA, 2010). Butterworth, A, Pompeii (St. Martin's Press, 2006). Grant, M, The History of Rome (Faber & Faber, London, 1993) Hornblower, S, The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford University Press, USA, 2012). Potter, D. S. (ed), A Companion to the Roman Empire (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).
Cite este trabalho.
Cartwright, M. (2013, December 17). Trade in the Roman World. Enciclopédia da História Antiga. Retrieved from ancient. eu/article/638/
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Cartwright, Mark. "Trade in the Roman World." Enciclopédia da História Antiga. Last modified December 17, 2013. ancient. eu/article/638/.
Cartwright, Mark. "Trade in the Roman World." Enciclopédia da História Antiga. Ancient History Encyclopedia, 17 Dec 2013. Web. 16 de fevereiro de 2018.
Submitted by Mark Cartwright, published on 17 December 2013 under the following license: Creative Commons: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. Esta licença permite que outros remixem, ajustem e desenvolvam este conteúdo não comercialmente, desde que creditem o autor e licenciam suas novas criações sob termos idênticos.
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Roman road system.
Roman road system , outstanding transportation network of the ancient Mediterranean world, extending from Britain to the Tigris-Euphrates river system and from the Danube River to Spain and northern Africa. In all, the Romans built 50,000 miles (80,000 km) of hard-surfaced highway, primarily for military reasons.
The first of the great Roman roads, the Via Appia ( Appian Way), begun by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 bce , originally ran southeast from Rome 162 miles (261 km) to Tarentum (now Taranto) and was later extended to the Adriatic coast at Brundisium (now Brindisi). The long branch running through Calabria to the Straits of Messina was known as the Via Popilia. By the beginning of the 2nd century bce , four other great roads radiated from Rome: the Via Aurelia, extending northwest to Genua (Genoa); the Via Flaminia, running north to the Adriatic, where it joined the Via Aemilia, crossed the Rubicon, and led northwest; the Via Valeria, east across the peninsula by way of Lake Fucinus (Conca del Fucino); and the Via Latina, running southeast and joining the Via Appia near Capua. Their numerous feeder roads extending far into the Roman provinces led to the proverb “All roads lead to Rome.”
The Roman roads were notable for their straightness, solid foundations, cambered surfaces facilitating drainage, and use of concrete made from pozzolana (volcanic ash) and lime. Though adapting their technique to materials locally available, the Roman engineers followed basically the same principles in building abroad as they had in Italy. In 145 bce they began the Via Egnatia, an extension of the Via Appia beyond the Adriatic into Greece and Asia Minor, where it joined the ancient Persian Royal Road.
In northern Africa the Romans followed up their conquest of Carthage by building a road system that spanned the south shore of the Mediterranean. In Gaul they developed a system centred on Lyon, whence main roads extended to the Rhine, Bordeaux, and the English Channel. In Britain the purely strategic roads following the conquest were supplemented by a network radiating from London. In Spain, on the contrary, the topography of the country dictated a system of main roads around the periphery of the peninsula, with secondary roads developed into the central plateaus.
The Roman road system made possible Roman conquest and administration and later provided highways for the great migrations into the empire and a means for the diffusion of Christianity. Despite deterioration from neglect, it continued to serve Europe throughout the Middle Ages, and many fragments of the system survive today.
Economia.
Ancient Roman Economy.
A Simple Yet Powerful Economy.
For all of the glory and grandeur of Ancient Rome, the Roman economy never developed into anything terribly complex compared to modern economies. Ancient Rome was an agrarian and slave based economy whose main concern was feeding the vast number of citizens and legionaries who populated the Mediterranean region. Agriculture and trade dominated Roman economic fortunes, only supplemented by small scale industrial production.
The staple crops of Roman farmers in Italy were various grains, olives, and grapes. Olive oil and wine, outside of direct food stuffs, were among the most important products in the ancient civilized world and led Italy's exports. Romans did use a limited form of 2 tier crop rotation, but crop production was largely low output and required a vast number of slaves to operate at any volume.
Farmers could donate surplus crops to the government in lieu of a monetary tax. This system allowed both Republican and Imperial rulers to gain popularity with the masses through free grain distribution and also help to feed the legions at no direct monetary cost. Unfortunately it also left farmers with little incentive to increase productivity or output, since more crop translated to more taxes (and more free grain distributions). Citizens grew dependent on these grain doles and the large volume of trade that ensued.
The Roman Market Economy.
The Importance of Grain Facilitated Expansion and Conquest.
The need to secure grain providing provinces was one of many important factors that would lead to the expansion and conquests of the Roman State. Among these conquests were the provinces of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa. These areas were of vital importance in the processing and shipment of grain to Rome. Grain was shipped directly to Ostia, the official port of Rome, and penalties for disruption of the most direct route included deportation or execution. Once delivered to Ostia the grain was weighed, checked for quality, and then sent up the Tiber River on barges to Rome, where it would be repacked for distribution throughout the Empire.
Trade Goods and Manufacturing.
While the production and transportation of foods dominated the trading industry, there was also a vast exchange of other goods from all parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The prosperity of the Empire and many of it citizens generated a need for luxurious and exotic imports. Silks from China and the Far East, cotton and spices from India, Ivory and wild animals from Africa, vast amounts of mined metals from Spain and Britain, fossilized amber gems from Germany and slaves from all over the world discovered that all roads did indeed "lead to Rome."
The importance of industry and manufacturing was comparatively light to that of agriculture. The growth and influence of the Empire can not be underestimated, however. The largest industry in ancient Rome was mining, which provided the stones for the enormous building projects and metals for tools and the weapons that conquered the western world. Greece and northern Italy provided marble for the buildings that awed the ancients and modern people alike. Large quantities of gold and silver were mined in Spain to mint coins and create jewelry, while mines in Britain produced iron, lead and tin for weapons. Cities and towns throughout the empire established small-scale manufacturing plants which turned out hand-made pottery, glassware, weapons, tools, jewelry and textiles.
Trade Routes and Infrastructure.
Extensive trade routes were established on land and sea. The Roman roads are one lasting legacy of Roman domination and many are still in use today. While a benefit of a large network of roads was the transport of goods, their most significant purpose was the fast mobilization of the legions.
Following in the wake of marching soldiers, vast numbers of goods were carried along these roads. Transporting goods by land was slow and expensive, however, as large loads in wagons and carriages were pulled by lumbering oxen. Large, slow shipments were vulnerable to raids and adverse weather so faster horse drawn loads were used, but they could only deliver lighter cargos. Caravans of camels or donkeys carried loaded baskets called panniers and some goods were hauled by slaves, providing cheap labor. Trade by land was only profitable if goods were going short distances or if the cargo was small, expensive luxury items.
Most large-volume, cumbersome goods, such as food, precious metals, stones and building supplies, were shipped by water. Numerous sea lanes provided cheap and easy access to all parts of the Mediterranean. The consolidation of the Roman navy under Augustus virtually wiped the threat of piracy out, but inclement weather, inaccurate charts and poor navigational equipment could still wreak havoc on a convoy. Still despite the dangers, there was no better way to move cargo than by ship.
Romans thrived off of imported goods, and importers were among the wealthiest citizens of the Empire. The trading of goods for goods barter system was alive and well in the ancient world, but the Romans also used one of the world's most developed coinage systems. Coins of brass, bronze, copper, silver and gold in the Imperial system were minted and circulated under strict rules for weights, sizes, value and metal composition. The popularity and value of Roman coins became so great that they could be found as far east as India. Roman coins were greatly detailed and of high artisanship, and often were used as tools by the Emperors to circulate various forms of news and propaganda to the people and the world. In fact, numismatics (the study of ancient coins), is among the greatest sources of historical facts, events and living conditions as it relates to the Romans.
Discover More About The Economy of Ancient Rome.
Visit the sections below to find out more information regarding various different elements of the economy of Ancient Rome.
Trade Goods.
Roman Taxes.
Roman Coins.
Roman Roads.
Roman Empire Wall Map.
Books Related to the Economy of Ancient Rome:
The Roman Market Economy uses the tools of modern economics to show how trade, markets, and the Pax Romana were critical to ancient Rome's prosperity.
This book focuses on the economic performance of the Roman empire, analysing the extent to which Roman political domination of the Mediterranean and north-west Europe created the conditions for the integration of agriculture, production, trade, and commerce across the regions of the empire.
Fully accessible to the non-specialist, the volume represents a major advance in our understanding of the economic expansion that made the civilisation of the classical Mediterranean world possible.
To study the economies of the ancient world, one must begin by discarding many premises that seemed self-evident before Finley showed that they were useless or misleading. Available again, with a new foreword by Ian Morris, these sagacious, fertile, and occasionally combative essays are just as electrifying today as when Finley first wrote them.
Estradas na Roma Antiga.
Estradas romanas foram uma parte vital do desenvolvimento do estado romano, de cerca de 500 aC, através da expansão durante a República Romana e o Império Romano. Estradas romanas permitiram que os romanos movimentassem exércitos, trocassem mercadorias e se comunicassem.
O sistema rodoviário romano abrangia mais de 400.000 km de estradas, incluindo mais de 80.500 km de estradas pavimentadas. Quando Roma atingiu o auge de seu poder, nada menos que 29 grandes rodovias militares irradiavam da cidade. Colinas foram cortadas e ravinas profundas preenchidas.
Em um ponto, o Império Romano foi dividido em 113 províncias atravessadas por 372 grandes ligações rodoviárias. Só na Gália, nada menos que 21.000 km de estrada foram melhorados e na Grã-Bretanha pelo menos 4.000 km. Havia caminhos de cada lado da estrada.
Os romanos se tornaram adeptos da construção de estradas, que eles chamavam de viae. Eles foram destinados para transportar material de um local para outro. Era permitido andar ou passar e dirigir gado, veículos ou trânsito de qualquer descrição ao longo do caminho. O viae diferia das muitas outras estradas menores ou mais difíceis, caminhos de rédeas, desvios e trilhas. Para fazer as estradas, os romanos usavam pedras, pedras quebradas misturadas com cimento e areia, cimento misturado com azulejos quebrados, pedras curvas - assim a água podia escorrer, e no topo eles usavam pedras de pavimentação apertadas.
As redes rodoviárias romanas eram importantes tanto para manter a estabilidade do império quanto para sua expansão. As legiões aproveitaram-se delas e algumas ainda são usadas milênios depois. Na antiguidade posterior, essas estradas desempenharam um papel importante nos avanços militares romanos, oferecendo caminhos de invasão aos bárbaros.
As leis das Doze Tabelas, datadas de aproximadamente 450 aC, especificam que uma estrada deve ter 8 pés (2,45 m) de largura, onde reta e 16 pés (4,90 m), onde curvada. Práticas reais variavam deste padrão. As Tabelas ordenam aos romanos que construam estradas e dêem aos viajantes o direito de passar por terras privadas onde a estrada está em mau estado. A construção de estradas que não necessitariam de reparos frequentes tornou-se um objetivo ideológico, além de construí-las o mais reto possível, a fim de construir as estradas mais estreitas possíveis e, assim, economizar material.
A lei romana definia o direito de usar uma estrada como um serviço ou reivindicação. O ius eundi ("direito de ir") estabeleceu uma reivindicação para usar um iter, ou trilha, através de terra privada; o ius agendi ("direito de dirigir"), um actus ou pista de carruagem. Uma via combinou ambos os tipos de servos, desde que fosse da largura apropriada, que era determinada por um árbitro. A largura padrão foi o latitudo legitima de 8 pés (2,4 m). Nestas leis bastante secas, podemos ver a prevalência do domínio público sobre o privado, que caracterizou a república.
O direito e a tradição romana proibiam o uso de veículos em áreas urbanas, exceto em certos casos. Mulheres casadas e funcionários do governo em negócios poderiam montar. O Lex Iulia Municipalis restringiu os carrinhos comerciais ao acesso noturno à cidade dentro das muralhas e a menos de 1,6 km das muralhas.
Nas noticias .
De 43 a 410 dC, os romanos construíram cerca de 2.000 milhas de estradas em todo o Reino Unido, projetadas para permitir que as tropas se movimentassem rapidamente e fornecendo rotas vitais para o comércio, o comércio e o transporte de mercadorias. Um estudante ambicioso agora re-imaginou as estradas da era romana do Reino Unido como um moderno sistema de metrô. Embora as estradas fossem muito sofisticadas para o seu tempo, o transporte não era tão avançado, e uma viagem de Londres a York - que hoje levaria quatro horas de carro - levaria cinco dias para ser concluída em uma carruagem.
Estradas romanas variam de simples estradas de veludo a estradas pavimentadas, usando caminhos profundos de escombros como uma camada subjacente para garantir que eles se mantenham secos, pois a água fluiria entre as pedras e fragmentos de escombros, em vez de se tornar lama em solos argilosos.
Construção de uma estrada.
A distinção entre funcionários e oficiais de linha também se aplicava ao exército romano. Entre os funcionários, havia uma unidade chamada architecti, "construtores-chefe", responsável por toda a construção militar, que era a construção de estradas. Estes eram obrigados a serem homens instruídos. A geometria, claro, era um requisito central de sua educação.
Os arquitetos tinham uma equipe em tempo integral de agrimensores ("agrimensores") e libratores ("niveladores"). As equipes de trabalhadores da construção foram tomadas ad hoc das fileiras dos legionários. Além de seus braços, suas rações e seus utensílios, cada soldado carregava uma serra, machadinha, foice, picareta e pá. Augusto decidiu, por uma questão de política, manter os soldados ocupados (e, portanto, fora de problemas), transformando-os em construção.
Esse trabalho melhorou sua força e resistência, tornando-os quase imbatíveis, mas provocou queixas constantes sobre o trabalho de última hora, que às vezes se transformava em motim.
Como era de se esperar, as legiões buscaram assistência involuntária por seu trabalho duro. Escravos, prisioneiros de guerra e criminosos condenados muitas vezes desempenhavam as tarefas mais difíceis de extração e transporte de pedras. Eles também foram usados para reparo de estradas. Se eles executaram essas tarefas em cadeias não é conhecido. Chicote, no entanto, era comum, para o qual o verbo era verberare. Os espancamentos não eram de modo algum confinados aos escravos. De fato, um dos símbolos da autoridade romana eram os fasces, um feixe de chicotes.
Acredita-se que os romanos herdaram a arte da construção de estradas dos etruscos. Sem dúvida, a arte cresceu à medida que evoluiu e também incorporou boas idéias de outras culturas.
Depois que os arquitetos examinaram o local da estrada proposta e determinaram onde deveria ir, os agrimensores começaram a examinar o leito da estrada. Eles usaram dois dispositivos principais, a haste e um chamado groma, que os ajudou a obter ângulos retos.
O gromatici, o equivalente romano dos homens da vara, colocou varas e colocou uma linha chamada de rigor. Como eles não possuíam nada parecido com um trânsito, um arquiteto tentou alcançar a retidão olhando as hastes e comandando o gromatici para movê-las conforme necessário.
Usando o gromae, eles colocaram uma grade no plano da estrada.
Os libratores começaram seu trabalho. Usando arados e legionários com espadas, eles escavaram o leito da estrada até o leito rochoso ou pelo menos até o solo mais firme que puderam encontrar.
A escavação foi chamada de fossa, "vala". Era tipicamente 15 'abaixo da superfície, mas a profundidade variava de acordo com o terreno.
A estrada foi construída enchendo a vala. O método variava de acordo com a localização geográfica, os materiais disponíveis e o terreno, mas o plano ou ideal em que o arquiteto visava era sempre o mesmo. O leito da estrada estava em camadas.
Na fossa foram despejadas grandes quantidades de entulho, cascalho e pedra, qualquer que fosse o material disponível. Às vezes, uma camada de areia era colocada, se pudesse ser encontrada. Quando chegou a poucos metros da superfície, estava coberta de cascalho e calcada, um processo chamado pavimento ou pavimento. A superfície plana era então o pavimento. Poderia ser usado como a estrada, ou camadas adicionais poderiam ser construídas. Um statumen ou "fundação" de pedras planas fixadas em cimento pode apoiar as camadas adicionais.
Os passos finais utilizaram concreto, que os romanos haviam redescoberto exclusivamente. Eles parecem ter misturado a argamassa e as pedras na fossa. Primeiro, uma camada de concreto de vários centímetros, o rudus, depois uma camada de vários centímetros de concreto fino, o núcleo, subia para o pavimento ou o lume. Para dentro ou para o núcleo, um curso de pedras de pavimentação poligonais ou quadradas, como você vê na foto, chamado de summa crusta. O crusta foi coroado para drenagem. Não está claro se alguma terminologia padrão foi usada; as palavras para os diferentes elementos talvez variassem de região para região.
Hoje, o concreto se desgastou dos espaços ao redor das pedras, dando a impressão de uma estrada muito acidentada, mas a superfície original estava, sem dúvida, muito mais perto de ser plana. Estas estradas notáveis são resistentes a chuva, congelamento e inundações. Eles precisavam de pouco reparo.
Arquitetos romanos preferiram projetar soluções para obstáculos em vez de contorná-los.
As travessias de rio foram alcançadas por pontes ou pontes. Lajes simples passaram por cima de ranhuras. Uma ponte poderia ser de madeira, pedra ou ambos. Pontes de madeira foram construídas em estacas afundadas no rio ou em píeres de pedra. Pontes maiores ou mais permanentes requeriam arcos. As pontes romanas eram tão bem construídas que muitas estão em uso hoje.
Causeways foram construídos sobre o solo pantanoso. A estrada foi marcada pela primeira vez com estacas. Entre eles foram afundados grandes quantidades de pedra, de modo a elevar a calçada de 6 metros acima do pântano. Nas províncias, os romanos muitas vezes não se incomodavam com uma calçada de pedra, mas usavam estradas de madeira (pontes longi).
Afloramentos de pedras, ravinas ou terrenos acidentados ou montanhosos pediam cortes e túneis. As estradas romanas geralmente subiam e desciam as colinas, em vez de um padrão serpentino. Graus de 10% -12% são conhecidos em terrenos comuns, 15% -20% no país montanhoso.
O financiamento da construção e reparação de estradas era uma responsabilidade do governo. Os funcionários responsáveis pela captação de recursos eram os curatores viarum, nos quais você pode ver a palavra inglesa, curador. Eles tinham vários métodos disponíveis para eles. Cidadãos particulares com interesse na estrada podem contribuir para a sua reparação. Altos funcionários podem distribuir generosidade para ser usada em estradas. Os censores, responsáveis pela moral pública e obras públicas, deveriam financiar os reparos em sua pecunia. Além desses meios, os impostos eram necessários.
A beleza e a grandeza das estradas podem nos levar a acreditar que qualquer cidadão romano poderia usá-las de graça, mas não era esse o caso. Os pedágios abundam, especialmente nas pontes. Muitas vezes eles foram coletados no portão da cidade. O frete ficou mais pesado ainda com os impostos de importação e exportação. Estas eram apenas as acusações de usar as estradas. Custos de serviços na jornada subiram de lá.
Viae preparada (estradas) começou na história como as ruas de Roma. As leis das Doze Tabelas, datadas de aproximadamente 450 aC, especificam que uma estrada deve ter 8 pés de largura, onde reta e 16, onde curvada. As mesas ordenam que os romanos construam estradas e dão aos viajantes o direito de passar por terras privadas onde a estrada está em mau estado. Construir estradas que não necessitariam de reparos frequentes tornou-se um objetivo ideológico.
A lei romana definia o direito de usar uma estrada como um serviço ou reivindicação. O jus eundi ("direito de ir") estabeleceu uma reivindicação para usar um iter, ou trilha, através de terra privada; o ius agendi ("direito de dirigir"), um actus ou pista de carruagem. Uma via combinou ambos os tipos de servos, desde que fosse da largura apropriada, que era determinada por um árbitro. A largura padrão era o latitudo legitima de 8 pés. Nestas leis bastante secas, podemos ver a prevalência do domínio público sobre o privado, que caracterizou a república.
Com a conquista da Itália, viadias preparadas foram estendidas de Roma e seus arredores para os municípios periféricos, às vezes cobrindo as estradas anteriores.
Construir viae era uma responsabilidade militar e, portanto, estava sob a jurisdição de um cônsul. O processo tinha um nome militar, viam munire, como se a via fosse uma fortificação. Municípios, no entanto, foram responsáveis por suas próprias estradas, que os romanos chamavam viae vicinales. A via conectado duas cidades. Alguns links na rede eram tão longos quanto 55 milhas. Os construtores sempre visam uma largura de regulação, mas as larguras reais foram medidas entre 3 '9 "e 24'.
Os construtores visam a linearidade direcional. Muitas seções longas são retas, mas não devem ser pensadas como todas elas. A ênfase romana na construção de estradas retas muitas vezes resultou em áreas íngremes relativamente impraticáveis para a maioria do tráfego econômico: ao longo dos anos, os próprios romanos perceberam e construíram alternativas mais longas, porém mais administráveis, às estradas existentes.
Viae foram geralmente colocados centralmente no campo. Os recursos da via eram conectados à via pela viae rusticae, ou estradas secundárias. Estradas principais ou secundárias podem ser pavimentadas, ou podem ficar sem pavimento, com uma superfície de cascalho, como no norte da África. Estas estradas preparadas, mas não pavimentadas, eram viae glareae ou sternendae ("a ser espalhada"). Além das estradas secundárias foram viae terrenae, "estradas de terra".
Um roteiro do império revela que foi atado bastante completamente com uma rede de viae preparada. Além das fronteiras não há estradas; no entanto, pode-se presumir que caminhos e estradas de terra permitissem algum transporte.
Viajando por uma estrada.
Antes de 250 aC, a via Appia, e depois de 124 aC, a maioria viae, foi dividida em milhas numeradas por marcos. As palavras que traduzimos como milha são milia passuum, "mil passos", que somavam cerca de 1620 jardas, 1480 metros.
Um marco, ou miliária, era uma coluna circular sobre uma base retangular sólida, colocada a dois pés do solo, com vários metros de altura e 20 "de diâmetro, pesando cerca de duas toneladas.
Na base estava inscrito o número da milha em relação à estrada em que estava. Em um painel à altura dos olhos, estava a distância até o fórum em Roma e várias outras informações sobre os funcionários que fizeram ou consertaram a estrada e quando.
Estes miliaria são documentos históricos valiosos agora. Suas inscrições são coletadas no Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
Os romanos tinham uma preferência pela padronização sempre que podiam, e assim Augusto, depois de se tornar comissário permanente de estradas em 20 aC, estabeleceu o miliarium aurum (marco dourado) perto do templo de Saturno. Todas as estradas foram consideradas a partir deste monumento de bronze dourado. Nele foram listadas todas as principais cidades do império e distâncias para elas. Constantino chamou-lhe o umbigo Romae (umbigo de Roma).
Os marcos permitiram que distâncias e locais fossem conhecidos e registrados exatamente. Não demorou muito para que os historiadores começassem a se referir ao marco em que um evento ocorreu.
Não era incomum que os antigos romanos viajassem longas distâncias por toda a Europa. Na verdade, durante o Império Romano, Roma tinha uma incrível rede rodoviária que se estendia do norte da Inglaterra até o sul do Egito. Em seu pico, a rede de estradas pavimentadas de pedra do Império alcançou 53.000 milhas (85.000 quilômetros)! As estradas romanas eram muito confiáveis, elas eram as mais confiáveis nas estradas da Europa por muitos séculos após o colapso do Império Romano. Pode-se argumentar que eles eram mais confiáveis do que nossas estradas hoje, considerando quanto tempo eles poderiam durar e quão pouca manutenção precisavam.
Estações Way e Traveler Inns.
A legion on the march didn't need a way station, as it brought its own baggage train (impedimenta) and constructed its own camp (castra) every evening at the side of the road. Other officials or people on official business, however, had no legion at their service, and so the government maintained way stations, or mansiones ("staying places"), for their use. Passports were required for identification.
Carts could travel about 8 miles per day, pedestrians a little more, and so each mansio was about 15 to 18 miles from the next one. There the official traveller found a complete villa dedicated to his refreshment. Oftentimes a permanent military camp or a town grew up around the mansio.
Non-official travelers needed refreshment too, and at the same locations along the road. A private system of cauponae were placed near the mansiones. They performed the same functions but were somewhat disreputable, as they were frequented by thieves and prostitutes.
Graffiti decorate the walls of the few whose ruins have been found.
Genteel travelers needed something better than cauponae. In the early days of the viae, when little unofficial existed, houses placed near the road were required by law to offer hospitality on demand.
Frequented houses no doubt became the first tabernae, which were hostels, rather than the "taverns" we know today.
As Rome grew, so did its tabernae, becoming more luxurious and acquiring good or bad reputations as the case may be. One of the best hotels was the Tabernae Caediciae at Sinuessa on the Via Appia. It had a large storage room containing barrels of wine, cheese and ham.
Many cities of today grew up around a taberna complex, such as Rheinzabern in the Rhineland, and Saverne in Alsace.
A third system of way stations serviced vehicles and animals: the mutationes ("changing stations"). They were located every 12-18 miles. In these complexes, the driver could purchase the services of wheelrights, cartwrights, and equarii medici, or veterinarians.
Using these stations in chariot relays, the emperor Tiberius hastened 500 miles in 24 hours to join his brother, Drusus Germanicus, who was dying of gangrene as a result of a fall from a horse.
Roman law and tradition forbade the use of vehicles in urban areas, except in certain cases. Married women and government officials on business could ride. The Lex Iulia Municipalis restricted commercial carts to night-time access to the city within the walls and within a mile outside the walls. Outside the cities, Romans were avid riders and rode on or drove quite a number of vehicle types, some of which are mentioned here.
For purposes of description, Roman vehicles can be divided into the car, the coach and the cart. Cars were used to transport one or two individuals, coaches were used to transport parties, and carts to transport cargo.
Of the cars, the most popular was the currus ("car"), a standard chariot form descending to the Romans from a greater antiquity. The top was open, the front closed. One survives in the Vatican. It carried a driver and a passenger. A currus of two horses was a biga; of three horses, a triga; and of four horses a quadriga. The tires were of iron. When not in use, its wheels were removed for easier storage.
A more luxurious version, the carpentum, transported women and officials. It had an arched overhead covering of cloth and was drawn by mules. A lighter version, the cisium, equivalent to our gig, was open above and in front and had a seat.
Drawn by one or two mules or horses, it was used for cab work, the cab drivers being called cisiani. The builder was a cisarius. Of the coaches, the main stay was the raeda or reda, which had 4 wheels. The high sides formed a sort of box in which seats were placed, with a notch on each side for entry. It carried several people with baggage up to the legal limit of 1000 pounds. It was drawn by teams of oxen, horses or mules. A cloth top could be put on for weather, in which case it resembled a covered wagon.
The reda was probably the main vehicle for travel on the viae. Redae meritoriae were hired coaches. The fiscalis reda was a government coach. The driver and the builder were both named a raedarius. Of the carts, the main one was the plaustrum or plostrum. This was simply a platform of boards attached to wheels and a cross-tree. The wheels, or tympana, were solid and were several inches thick. The sides could be built up with boards or rails. A large wicker basket was sometimes placed on it. A two-wheel version existed. The 4-wheel type was the plaustrum maius.
The military used a standard wagon. Their transportation service was the cursus clabularis, after the standard wagon, called a carrus clabularius, clabularis, or clavularis, or clabulare. It transported the impedimenta, or baggage of a column.
Post Offices and Services.
Two postal services were available under the empire, a public and a private.
The Cursus publicus, founded by Augustus, carried the mail of officials by relay throughout the Roman road system. The vehicle for carrying mail was a cisium with a box, but for special delivery, a horse and rider was faster. A relay of horses could carry a letter 500 miles in 24 hours. The postman wore a characteristic leather hat, the petanus. The postal service was a somewhat dangerous occupation, as postmen were a target for bandits and enemies of Rome. Private mail of the well-to-do was carried by tabellarii, an organization of slaves available for a price.
The Romans and ancient travelers in general did not use maps. They may have existed as specialty items in some of the libraries, but they were hard to copy and were not in general use. On the Roman road system, however, the traveler needed some idea of where he was going, how to get there, and how long it would take.
The itinerarium filled this need. In origin it was simply a list of cities along a road. It was only a short step from lists to a master list. To sort out the lists, the Romans drew diagrams of parallel lines showing the branches of the roads. Parts of these were copied and sold on the streets.
The very best featured symbols for cities, way stations, water courses, and so on. They cannot be considered maps, as they did not represent landforms.
The Roman government from time to time undertook to produce a master itinerary of all Roman roads. Julius Caesar and Mark Antony commissioned the first known such effort in 44 BC. Zenodoxus, Theodotus and Polyclitus, three Greek geographers, were hired to survey the system and compile a master itinerary. This task required over 25 years.
The result was a stone engraved master itinerarium set up near the Pantheon, from which travelers and itinerary sellers could make copies.
Another master itinerary, the Itinerarium Provinciarum Antonini Augusti (the Antonine Itinerary) is known to have been undertaken in 217 AD. It was first printed in 1521 and after many reprintings survives today. Another major surviving itinerary is the Tabula Peutingeriana. The Ravenna Cosmography dates from the 7th century, but repeats earlier material.
Archaeology has turned up some itinerary material in unexpected places. The Cups of Cadiz, four silver cups found by workmen excavating a foundation at Bracciano in 1852, are engraved with the names and distances of stations between Cadiz and Rome.
The term itinerary changed meaning over the centuries. In the Itinerarium Burdigalense (Bordeaux Pilgrim, 333 AD), the itinerary is a description of what route to take to the Holy Land. The Itinerarium Alexandri is a list of the conquests of Alexander the Great. Today it means either a travel journal or a list of recommended stops.
Ancient Roman Trade.
Ancient Roman trade is a subject of many facets particularly when we consider that ancient Rome is difficult to define in terms of time and extension: "Ancient Rome" lasted close to a millennium and the culture, society and world within it existed changed enormously. so too the extent of Ancient Rome ranged from a few villages on hilltops near the river Tiber across to an enormous empire. Rome alone grew to having over 1 million inhabitants.
Having set the above conditions it is evident that this essay will have to make a number of simplifications, give some ideas as to the fundamental mechanisms involved and point to areas of further investigation.
An ideal example to investigate is the wine trade, such as was active in cities such as Pompeii because it has left many examples and traces behind, ranging from references in literature through to inscriptions and entire farms, not to mention shiploads of amphoras along the coasts of countries it was exported to.
Before looking at the various details of such trade it is important to set some essential points:
Eu. The Roman economy was essentially a competitive market economy, capitalistic in nature, although with many imperfections, for example the cost of transport over land was so high as to imply that some foreign bulk products such as wine imported from Spain could be cheaper than similar product produced 100km/100miles away.
It is worth noting that trade was bi-directional: Rome itself was often in need of imports of grain and wine for example to support the livelihood of the enormous population and these supplies wouldn't necessarily come from other parts of Italy. There was, by-and-large, free trade with a single Roman currency throughout the empire. This fostered competition and enabled all sorts of exotic goods to be acquired from the most distant lands. A couple of interesting examples of Roman free trade and its effects are:
Some Roman mosaics showing bowls of fruit containing pineapples: Pineapples don't grow anywhere near Italy! When Pompeii was hit by the volcano there was a huge effect on the agricultural markets, two year's worth of wine production were affected and hence so too was the price of wine which saw a sharp increase. The surge in demand for wine (or rather the sharp reduction in supply) meant that other land which was dedicated to grain and other foodstuffs was switched to wine, hence creating a temporary knock-on effect on food supplies and prices.
ii. The economic cycle which enabled intensive investment and trading was essentially built around military expansion and Roman slave labour, a little like many western countries in the 14th-19th centuries. The mechanism was something like the following:
Military campaigns brought land & wealth & slaves to those who had financed the campaigns (the patrician upper class families/the Roman state) and eventually make their way onto Rome’s markets. The land might be redistributed as retirement payment to the soldiers. Much of the wealth and booty would be redistributed to those who financed the campaigns, similarly to wealthy businessmen financing financial ventures and to some degree to the state and retiring soldiers (1.5 hectares each). Land distribution was a bone of contention with the plebeians who saw themselves fight the wars but gain little from them (see the Roman social wars and Gracchi brothers). Patricians spend the wealth on land and large holdings which they farm intensively by use of the cheap slaves which had been taken during the campaigns. The cost of a slave varied greatly , also in line with supply and availability. But on the whole we might consider the cost of a slave being similar to the cost of purchasing a motorbike or car nowadays (including the second hand market). People working with or for the Patricians would then ship and trade the produce into the provinces and along trade routes which are either hospitable or rendered hospitable by yet more military campaigns. frequently the merchants were well ahead of the military campaigns, a great example below is that of the wine trade in Gaul in exchange for slaves which actually came to an abrupt stop because of the military invasion of the region by Caesar. very much as we see in modern economies, this economic cycle generated a number of supporting trades such as pottery and Roman amphoras to carry the produce, infrastructure construction and shipbuilding to carry it to various markets where there might be strongest demand, not to mention the lucrative businesses of money lending and banking.
The above cycle came somewhat unstuck when the empire's expansionist period came to an end around the 2nd century AD and hence reducing the flow of cheap slavery, forcing the landowning upper class to sell or break up their vast land into smaller tenancies which paid a regular tribute, similar to the the "tithes" in medieval Britain.
Trade and economy can also be said to be an expression of the people who make up society and of the relationship between these people. At the end of the day, a market economy is founded on entrepreneurs: individuals who have a particular drive to make something out of nothing, who are able to quantify risks, are operating in an environment which has suitable infrastructure and of course have access to finance. Rome was full of such examples, from both ends of the social pyramid and even including a number of the slaves. We can perceive something of this from a good number of funeral engravings, memorials and tomb stones, for example a tomb stone depicting an ancient Roman family wine trade.
An interesting example of the understanding for investment and liquidity is to be had from Cicero who suggested that if you were going to liquidate part of your capital it would be better to sell off your vineyards rather than woodland since timber could easily be sold in times of need, ie easier to liquidate if necessary.
The ancient Roman wine trade:
A quick look at the development of the mediterranean wine trade gives great insight into some of the factors influencing Ancient Roman (wine) trade: whilst the example taken is the product of wine, the factors affecting the trade are applicable to many if not all other items of commerce.
The Greeks were first to achieve mass production of wine for export which quickly made its way into southern and central Italy. However the Etruscans were also quick to start their own mass production for both internal consumption and export. From the end of the 7 th Century BC the major Etruscan centres were Vulci and Caere in central Italy, not distant to the North of Rome which given their position enjoyed good demand from the Celtic north. It is the amphoras of easily identifiable shape which enable such commerce to be analised and tracked along the Tyrrhenian sea to Provence and Catalunia along the Rhine and into central Europe. This Italic production was also enjoyed by the Greek Marseilles where between the years 600 and 530BC Roman wine constituted some 90% of all wine imports.
A similar supply-demand mechanism is to be found with the increase in wine production in southern France which gradually enabled Etruscan imports to be limited.
During this period Rome was seeing a continuous growth in its fortunes. We shouldn’t forget that the Roman kings of the time were principally Etruscans with a clear view of international trade and access to the necessary information, yet wine production didn’t increase significantly: available farming land had to be dedicated to the growth of cereals to feed the population. This need was undone around the 3rd century BC when Rome managed to take control of Sicily – a true granary within the Mediterranean area – hence allowing farmland in central Italy to be dedicated to the growth of higher quality product.
It is of interest to note that conquest of Sicily involved direct confrontation with Carthage, which in turn was a great stimulus to Ancient Roman investment in naval skills, technology and infrastructure: essential to enabling flourishing international trade.
Dressel 1: Roman attitude to international commerce by sea was initially very cautious, we shouldn’t forget that the investments were made directly and at personal level by the Senatorial class and a single storm at sea could easily wipe out an entire year’s investment. During the 2 nd century BC the situation changed dramatically when such risks were outweighed by the immense profitability and strong economic boom brought by increasing access to cheap slavery. This surge of export can be identified by the vast finds of "Dressel 1" type Roman amphoras.
Wine from central Italy and Campania flowed in copious quantities into Gaul, Spain, North Africa and central Europe. The Roman merchants were frequently well ahead of the military. Estimates suggest that during the course of one century some 40milion amphoras were exported to Gaul alone. This is reflected in the 60 or so sunk ships found with Dressel1 amphoras along the French coast.
Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca Universalis 5,36,1) suggests the Gauls were so thirsty for Roman wine that they would exchange an amphora of wine for a slave which clearly strengthened Roman dominance of wine production.
Beyond Dressel1 amphoras:
Caesar’s conquest of Gaul mid 1 st C BC put an end to such lucrative slaves-for-wine Roman trade and enforced a more rational usage of agricultural land as had already happened in other regions of the budding empire. By the time of Augustus who followed Caesar to power, Rome’s population had reached more than 1M people and this necessarily implied importing food and wine from all parts of the empire, spurring the creation of yet more foreign production centres.
Economies of transport:
Whilst we can superficially take ancient Roman economy to be a market based capitalistic competitive approach. Roman technology and infrastructure weren’t so advanced as to enable a perfectly liquid economic mechanism: transport by sea was far cheaper than that over land and this generated some significant distortions: local Italian inland produce could economically travel some 100km and hence scarcely compete with the cheap imports from abroad. These dynamics particularly affected the production of wines intended for the mass markets: Italic wines were therefore forced to opt for quality/high value status which, so Galen tells us in the 2 nd Century AC, foreign wine producers continued to attempted to forge and unsuccessfully replace.
Amphoras for wine transport were replaced by the Gaulish barrel, known as "cupa", around the end of the 2 nd century AD. Wooden containers had been well known for some 4 centuries already although the Roman merchants and consumers had long distrusted them as producing poisoning effects (Natural History bk 16). Nevertheless the barrel’s advantages in terms of cost and lightness outweighed any effects it might have in terms of reduced conservation of wine flavour and bouquet.
Shopping in Ancient Rome.
Clearly, a fundamental mainstay of all economic and trade systems is the possibility of bring the produce to consumers and selling it. In Rome this was achieved through a well developed system of shops along streets as well as markets and dedicated "Forums", so for example there would be a forum for meat (the Forum Boarium), a forum which had money lenders etc and of course a currency and coinage system to permit trading and lending. More is said about Shopping in Ancient Rome.
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Trade in the Roman World.
published on 17 December 2013.
Regional, inter-regional and international trade was a common feature of the Roman world. A mix of state control and a free market approach ensured goods produced in one location could be exported far and wide. Cereals, wine and olive oil, in particular, were exported in huge quantities whilst in the other direction came significant imports of precious metals, marble, and spices.
Generally speaking, as with earlier and contemporary civilizations, the Romans gradually developed a more sophisticated economy following the creation of an agricultural surplus, population movement and urban growth, territorial expansion, technology innovation, taxation, the spread of coinage, and not insignificantly, the need to feed the great city of Rome itself and supply its huge army wherever it might be on campaign.
Propaganda.
The economy in the Roman world displayed features of both underdevelopment and high achievement. Elements of the former, some historians have argued (notably M. I.Finley), are an over-dependence on agriculture, a slow diffusion of technology, the high level of local town consumption rather than regional trade, and a low level of investment in industry. However, there is also evidence that from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE there was a significant rise in the proportion of workers involved in the production and services industries and greater trade between regions in essential commodities and manufactured goods. In the later empire period, although trade in the east increased - stimulated by the founding of Constantinople - trade in the western empire declined.
The Roman attitude to trade was somewhat negative, at least from the higher classes. Land ownership and agriculture were highly regarded as a source of wealth and status but commerce and manufacturing were seen as a less noble pursuit for the well-off. However, those rich enough to invest often overcame their scruples and employed slaves, freedmen, and agents ( negotiatores ) to manage their business affairs and reap the often vast rewards of commercial activity.
Traded Goods.
Whilst the archaeological evidence of trade can sometimes be patchy and misrepresentative, a combination of literary sources, coinage and such unique records as shipwrecks helps to create a clearer picture of just what the Romans traded, in what quantity, and where.
Propaganda.
Trade involved foodstuffs (e. g. olives, fish, meat, cereals, salt, prepared foods such as fish sauce, olive oil, wine and beer), animal products (e. g. leather and hides), objects made from wood, glass, or metals, textiles, pottery, and materials for manufacturing and construction such as glass, marble, wood, wool, bricks, gold, silver, copper, and tin. Finally, there was, of course, also the substantial trade in slaves.
The fact that many goods were produced as regional specialities on often very large estates, for example, wine from Egypt or olive oil from southern Spain, only increased the inter-regional trade of goods. That such large estates could produce a massive surplus for trade is evidenced at archaeological sites across the empire: wine producers in southern France with cellars capable of storing 100,000 litres, an olive oil factory in Libya with 17 presses capable of producing 100,000 litres a year, or gold mines in Spain producing 9,000 kilos of gold a year. Although towns were generally centres of consumption rather than production, there were exceptions where workshops could produce impressive quantities of goods. These 'factories' might have been limited to a maximum workforce of 30 but they were often collected together in extensive industrial zones in the larger cities and harbours, and in the case of ceramics, also in rural areas close to essential raw materials (clay and wood for the kilns).
Goods were not only exchanged across the Roman world, however, as bustling ports such as Gades, Ostia, Puteoli, Alexandria, and Antioch also imported goods from such far-flung places as Arabia, India, Southeast Asia, and China. Sometimes these goods followed land routes such as the well-established Silk Road or travelled by sea across the Indian Ocean. Such international trade was not necessarily limited to luxury goods such as pepper, spices (e. g. cloves, ginger, and cinnamon), coloured marble, silk, perfumes, and ivory, though, as the low quality pottery found in shipwrecks and geographical spread of terracotta oil lamps illustrates.
Propaganda.
Transporte.
Goods were transported across the Roman world but there were limitations caused by a lack of land transport innovation. The Romans are celebrated for their roads but in fact it remained much cheaper to transport goods by sea rather than by river or land as the cost ratio was approximately 1:5:28. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that sometimes the means of transport was determined by circumstances and not by choice and all three modes of transport grew significantly in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. In addition, although transport by sea was the cheapest and fastest method (1,000 nautical miles in 9 days) it could also be the riskiest - subject to the whims of weather and theft from piracy - and was restricted by the seasons as the period between November and March (at least) was regarded as being too unpredictable for safe passage.
From analysis of over 900 shipwrecks from the Roman period the most typical size of merchant vessel had a capacity for 75 tons of goods or 1500 amphorae but there were bigger vessels capable of transporting up to 300 tons of goods. One interesting example is the 40s CE Port Vendres II wreck located in the Mediterranean off the Spanish-French border. The cargo was taken from at least 11 different merchants and contained olive oil, sweet wine, fish sauce, fine pottery, glass, and ingots of tin, copper, and lead.
State Control.
In the imperial period there was great state control over trade in order to guarantee supply (the annona system) and even a state merchant fleet, replacing the system during the republic of paying subsidies ( vecturae ) to encourage private shipowners. There was a specific official in charge of the grain supply (the praefectus annonae ) who regulated the various shipowner associations ( collegia navicularii ). The state taxed the movement of goods between provinces and also controlled many local markets ( nundinae ) - often held once a week - as the establishment of a market by a large land-owner had to be approved by the Senate or emperor.
The greatest state expenditure was on the army, which required some 70% of the budget. The state's apparatus of taxation to acquire revenue may be considered a success in that, despite the tax burden, local prosperity and economic growth were not unduly hampered.
Evidence of state control can be seen in the many goods which were stamped or carried markers indicating their origin or manufacturer and in some cases guaranteeing their weight, purity or genuineness. Pottery, amphorae, bricks, glass, metal ingots (important for coinage), tiles, marble and wooden barrels were usually stamped and general goods for transportation carried metal tags or lead seals. These measures helped to control trade, provide product guarantees and prevent fraud. Inscriptions on olive oil amphorae were particularly detailed as they indicated the weight of the vessel empty and of the oil added, the place of production, the name of the merchant transporting them and the names and signatures of the officials who carried out these controls.
Trade was also carried out completely independent from the state, though, and was favoured by the development of banking. Although banking and money-lending generally remained a local affair there are records of merchants taking out a loan in one port and paying it off in another once the goods were delivered and sold on. There is also abundant evidence of a free-trade economy beyond the reaches of the empire and independent of the larger cities and army camps.
Conclusão.
Whatever the exact economic mechanisms and proportion of state to private enterprise, the scale of trade in the Roman world is hugely impressive and no other pre-industrial society came even close. Such mundane functional items as amphorae or oil lamps were produced in their millions and it has been estimated that in Rome alone the quantity of oil traded was 23,000,000 kilograms per year whilst the city's annual wine consumption was well over 1,000,000 hectolitres, probably nearer 2 million. These kinds of figures would not be seen again until industrialisation swept the developed world long after Roman traders had closed their accounting books and been forgotten by history.
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Revisão editorial.
Nossa equipe editorial analisa cada apresentação quanto à precisão, confiabilidade e aderência aos padrões acadêmicos, sendo fácil de ler com os alunos e o público em geral.
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Conteúdo Relacionado.
Trade in Ancient Greece.
Food & Agriculture in Ancient Greece.
Trade in the Byzantine Empire.
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Bibliografia.
Barchiesi, A. (ed), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies (Oxford University Press, USA, 2010). Butterworth, A, Pompeii (St. Martin's Press, 2006). Grant, M, The History of Rome (Faber & Faber, London, 1993) Hornblower, S, The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford University Press, USA, 2012). Potter, D. S. (ed), A Companion to the Roman Empire (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).
Cite este trabalho.
Cartwright, M. (2013, December 17). Trade in the Roman World. Enciclopédia da História Antiga. Retrieved from ancient. eu/article/638/
Estilo De Chicago.
Cartwright, Mark. "Trade in the Roman World." Enciclopédia da História Antiga. Last modified December 17, 2013. ancient. eu/article/638/.
Cartwright, Mark. "Trade in the Roman World." Enciclopédia da História Antiga. Ancient History Encyclopedia, 17 Dec 2013. Web. 16 de fevereiro de 2018.
Submitted by Mark Cartwright, published on 17 December 2013 under the following license: Creative Commons: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. Esta licença permite que outros remixem, ajustem e desenvolvam este conteúdo não comercialmente, desde que creditem o autor e licenciam suas novas criações sob termos idênticos.
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Roman road system.
Roman road system , outstanding transportation network of the ancient Mediterranean world, extending from Britain to the Tigris-Euphrates river system and from the Danube River to Spain and northern Africa. In all, the Romans built 50,000 miles (80,000 km) of hard-surfaced highway, primarily for military reasons.
The first of the great Roman roads, the Via Appia ( Appian Way), begun by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 bce , originally ran southeast from Rome 162 miles (261 km) to Tarentum (now Taranto) and was later extended to the Adriatic coast at Brundisium (now Brindisi). The long branch running through Calabria to the Straits of Messina was known as the Via Popilia. By the beginning of the 2nd century bce , four other great roads radiated from Rome: the Via Aurelia, extending northwest to Genua (Genoa); the Via Flaminia, running north to the Adriatic, where it joined the Via Aemilia, crossed the Rubicon, and led northwest; the Via Valeria, east across the peninsula by way of Lake Fucinus (Conca del Fucino); and the Via Latina, running southeast and joining the Via Appia near Capua. Their numerous feeder roads extending far into the Roman provinces led to the proverb “All roads lead to Rome.”
The Roman roads were notable for their straightness, solid foundations, cambered surfaces facilitating drainage, and use of concrete made from pozzolana (volcanic ash) and lime. Though adapting their technique to materials locally available, the Roman engineers followed basically the same principles in building abroad as they had in Italy. In 145 bce they began the Via Egnatia, an extension of the Via Appia beyond the Adriatic into Greece and Asia Minor, where it joined the ancient Persian Royal Road.
In northern Africa the Romans followed up their conquest of Carthage by building a road system that spanned the south shore of the Mediterranean. In Gaul they developed a system centred on Lyon, whence main roads extended to the Rhine, Bordeaux, and the English Channel. In Britain the purely strategic roads following the conquest were supplemented by a network radiating from London. In Spain, on the contrary, the topography of the country dictated a system of main roads around the periphery of the peninsula, with secondary roads developed into the central plateaus.
The Roman road system made possible Roman conquest and administration and later provided highways for the great migrations into the empire and a means for the diffusion of Christianity. Despite deterioration from neglect, it continued to serve Europe throughout the Middle Ages, and many fragments of the system survive today.
Economia.
Ancient Roman Economy.
A Simple Yet Powerful Economy.
For all of the glory and grandeur of Ancient Rome, the Roman economy never developed into anything terribly complex compared to modern economies. Ancient Rome was an agrarian and slave based economy whose main concern was feeding the vast number of citizens and legionaries who populated the Mediterranean region. Agriculture and trade dominated Roman economic fortunes, only supplemented by small scale industrial production.
The staple crops of Roman farmers in Italy were various grains, olives, and grapes. Olive oil and wine, outside of direct food stuffs, were among the most important products in the ancient civilized world and led Italy's exports. Romans did use a limited form of 2 tier crop rotation, but crop production was largely low output and required a vast number of slaves to operate at any volume.
Farmers could donate surplus crops to the government in lieu of a monetary tax. This system allowed both Republican and Imperial rulers to gain popularity with the masses through free grain distribution and also help to feed the legions at no direct monetary cost. Unfortunately it also left farmers with little incentive to increase productivity or output, since more crop translated to more taxes (and more free grain distributions). Citizens grew dependent on these grain doles and the large volume of trade that ensued.
The Roman Market Economy.
The Importance of Grain Facilitated Expansion and Conquest.
The need to secure grain providing provinces was one of many important factors that would lead to the expansion and conquests of the Roman State. Among these conquests were the provinces of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa. These areas were of vital importance in the processing and shipment of grain to Rome. Grain was shipped directly to Ostia, the official port of Rome, and penalties for disruption of the most direct route included deportation or execution. Once delivered to Ostia the grain was weighed, checked for quality, and then sent up the Tiber River on barges to Rome, where it would be repacked for distribution throughout the Empire.
Trade Goods and Manufacturing.
While the production and transportation of foods dominated the trading industry, there was also a vast exchange of other goods from all parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The prosperity of the Empire and many of it citizens generated a need for luxurious and exotic imports. Silks from China and the Far East, cotton and spices from India, Ivory and wild animals from Africa, vast amounts of mined metals from Spain and Britain, fossilized amber gems from Germany and slaves from all over the world discovered that all roads did indeed "lead to Rome."
The importance of industry and manufacturing was comparatively light to that of agriculture. The growth and influence of the Empire can not be underestimated, however. The largest industry in ancient Rome was mining, which provided the stones for the enormous building projects and metals for tools and the weapons that conquered the western world. Greece and northern Italy provided marble for the buildings that awed the ancients and modern people alike. Large quantities of gold and silver were mined in Spain to mint coins and create jewelry, while mines in Britain produced iron, lead and tin for weapons. Cities and towns throughout the empire established small-scale manufacturing plants which turned out hand-made pottery, glassware, weapons, tools, jewelry and textiles.
Trade Routes and Infrastructure.
Extensive trade routes were established on land and sea. The Roman roads are one lasting legacy of Roman domination and many are still in use today. While a benefit of a large network of roads was the transport of goods, their most significant purpose was the fast mobilization of the legions.
Following in the wake of marching soldiers, vast numbers of goods were carried along these roads. Transporting goods by land was slow and expensive, however, as large loads in wagons and carriages were pulled by lumbering oxen. Large, slow shipments were vulnerable to raids and adverse weather so faster horse drawn loads were used, but they could only deliver lighter cargos. Caravans of camels or donkeys carried loaded baskets called panniers and some goods were hauled by slaves, providing cheap labor. Trade by land was only profitable if goods were going short distances or if the cargo was small, expensive luxury items.
Most large-volume, cumbersome goods, such as food, precious metals, stones and building supplies, were shipped by water. Numerous sea lanes provided cheap and easy access to all parts of the Mediterranean. The consolidation of the Roman navy under Augustus virtually wiped the threat of piracy out, but inclement weather, inaccurate charts and poor navigational equipment could still wreak havoc on a convoy. Still despite the dangers, there was no better way to move cargo than by ship.
Romans thrived off of imported goods, and importers were among the wealthiest citizens of the Empire. The trading of goods for goods barter system was alive and well in the ancient world, but the Romans also used one of the world's most developed coinage systems. Coins of brass, bronze, copper, silver and gold in the Imperial system were minted and circulated under strict rules for weights, sizes, value and metal composition. The popularity and value of Roman coins became so great that they could be found as far east as India. Roman coins were greatly detailed and of high artisanship, and often were used as tools by the Emperors to circulate various forms of news and propaganda to the people and the world. In fact, numismatics (the study of ancient coins), is among the greatest sources of historical facts, events and living conditions as it relates to the Romans.
Discover More About The Economy of Ancient Rome.
Visit the sections below to find out more information regarding various different elements of the economy of Ancient Rome.
Trade Goods.
Roman Taxes.
Roman Coins.
Roman Roads.
Roman Empire Wall Map.
Books Related to the Economy of Ancient Rome:
The Roman Market Economy uses the tools of modern economics to show how trade, markets, and the Pax Romana were critical to ancient Rome's prosperity.
This book focuses on the economic performance of the Roman empire, analysing the extent to which Roman political domination of the Mediterranean and north-west Europe created the conditions for the integration of agriculture, production, trade, and commerce across the regions of the empire.
Fully accessible to the non-specialist, the volume represents a major advance in our understanding of the economic expansion that made the civilisation of the classical Mediterranean world possible.
To study the economies of the ancient world, one must begin by discarding many premises that seemed self-evident before Finley showed that they were useless or misleading. Available again, with a new foreword by Ian Morris, these sagacious, fertile, and occasionally combative essays are just as electrifying today as when Finley first wrote them.
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